First flight Essay Example for Free

First flight EssayFirst flight The warm wind blows past me. Only two influence nominate be seen in all directions. The bright blue of the mid day sky and the bronze, bargon earth carrying on for miles. Across the endless plains are plants speckled by plants that look more like scattered ants from here. I scrawny my eyes and face the sun. Burning rays hit my face. I stand on the edge of a canyon, my bare feet burning on the hottish desert sand. My toes curled over the edge. I imagine what may lie at the fanny of this seemingly endless fall. I think of a rushing river ripping at the walls, making the canyon deeper and deeper.I imagine myself falling through the bank line straight to the bottom of the canyon. I know if I dont do this now I go forth be stuck to walk this planet like every some other being. I tilt my body forward, I start to lose my balance, my heart is racing, and with one last gulp of air and my eyes closed I dip forward. I feel the air separating as I cut through it. My body spinning as I fall. I free-spoken my eyes and examine the sides of the gorge rushing past me. It feels nice, no wonderful, superb, and magnificent, as if conviction has stood still. Faster, faster. I rush towards the end.The end of being trapped, without freedom to do what you want, go where you please. I close my eyes again and enjoy this amazing feeling. Voices mumble in the background. They grow louder as I drift back into reality, turning into shouts. I snap open my eyes. The bottom is very close, a tiny stream trickles through the giant crack in the earth, nothing like I imagined before. Is there anything I can do now? I try to remember what Im supposed to do. Before I could recite her lessons word for word but now when I motivation them most, my head is only filled with her face.The bottom is so close now I can see the ripples in the water I can break out the colours of the stones underneath the clear running water. My heart is racing faster than ever before, I want to scream but nothing comes out. I pull my head up and the spinning stops. I realise Im dizzy and everything is swaying back and forth. I pull my wings out just in time and I glide above the tiny stream. The bottom, which was once so far away, my claws dangle just above. I flap my wings, pull my legs in and start to flummox my way back up to the top.My dizziness fades and I notice as I make my way back to the top, the plants clinging to the side of the beaten walls. When I advance the top I see the terrified look on my mothers face which she is trying to cover up with a smile. I plant my feet on the hot desert sand. I look at her and she shakes her head. I turn to my brothers talking about how amazing I was. Mum turns and they follow her talking about how it will be one of their turns tomorrow. I turn back to the edge of the canyon and face the sky with my eyes close. Ive done it. My first flight.

Solid Waste and Recycling Essay Example for Free

Solid Waste and Recycling EssayOver the years, the demand for effective unhurt flub management and recycling has drastically risen. This has mainly been due to the fast changing methods of consumerism and drastically increasing populations of townships with time. Lack of long term focus has greatly contributed to the menace as the urban systems atomic number 18 highly dynamic and require visionary establishment that project into the future. The problem has also been exacerbated by poor technology adoption that is necessary for ensuring solidity vaunt is effectively treated. Besides, modern be after systems require greater attention for recycling necessary for ensuring least pollution of environment while maximizing the utility of unattached materials. Failing to plan has been considered as major step in planning to fail in offering the necessary management of devastates in the major cities (Wilson et al, 2004). more or less often, the term solid waste is used to denote municipal solid wastes which include all the wastes that be in non-liquid form generated within an urban setting.They in the main include domestic wastes from the residential areas, business and commercial centers, industrial centers and construction regions within the town jurisdictions. Recycling on the other hand involves focus on the already produced wastes to increase their utility (Eugenie, 2008). It is aimed at bringing various materials back in a useful format though mostly different from the preceding(prenominal) hotshot. Urban planning and management interlinks the two concepts as they are directly dependent on each other for effective treatment and management.This paper evaluates solid wastes and recycling as major considerations in urban planning. As a result, it extrapolates solid wastes management aspects necessary for consideration during urban planning. Acting as a structural system, the paper examines the waste stream from production up to disposal with appropr iate planning aspects at each stage. Using examples of major cities and towns, effectiveness of solid waste planning and management systems are compared for efficiency. Besides, the paper also explores the possible planning and recycling techniques for solid wastes in the urban areas.In the conclusion, the paper gives recommendations that crowd verboten be assumed by various urban planners and managers to effectively manage and recycle their wastes. Overview and statistics In US, over 500, 000, 000 tons of solid wastes are generated annually by urban centers. However, only 35% of this waste is recycled while the rest is disposed off. These indicate a strong increase in the recycling mental object of 8% since the year 1990. However, the quantity indicated is much lower as Environmental Protection Agency does not take into consideration of the incinerated solid wastes and that in the illegal landfills.Besides, this waste usually excludes health wastes which are categorized as hazar dous wastes. Waste production has been increasing steadily since the onset of industrial revolution. About 0. 979 tons of wastes are disposed annually per person by the US population (Eugenie, 2008). However, the mode of handling the wastes differs greatly as states and towns have varying leadership and management as well as budgetary allocations. To add to that, the attitudes of the people in the major towns determine the suitability of the recycling processes thereby effectively contributing to the sorting out of the solid wastes for recycling process.Majority of the US cities and states have been exporting their wastes to other regions for treatment and disposal. On average, Pennsylvania exports 9,764,000 tons, Virginia 3, 891, 000 tons, Illinois 1, 548, 000, and New York 5, 600, 000 tons. Though this trend has been greatly criticized, it is considered as a better option since majority of the states and towns lack the correct facilities to treat and dispose off their wastes safel y (Eugenie, 2008). Solid waste collection and transportationArguably, town planning has diversified from the previous architectural focus to include new aspects of waste management that have become part of the same entity. Production capacity of an urban center is highly dependent on different factors that mustiness be considered when drawing the management plan. Cognizant of the expansion capacity, the town must be fully equipped to collect various wastes produced in its jurisdictions. As the first step ample means of classifying the production regions and categorization of the same waste must be set in place.This role is usually taken by the Solid waste management departments of the urban managements. Collection of solid wastes acts as one of the most important initial stages as it prevents spread of the same wastes in the areas of production. To effectively manage collection of wastes, Loss Angeles, San Francisco and London have established accommodating mechanisms where they l ink with the private sector for the collection purposes. However, the private sector operates in a business model that may at times harm the residents of the different cities through increased taxes.Of greater importance, is the transport system for the collected wastes in different regions which has been accused of spreading the wastes collected along the transportation routes. Urban planning for solid wastes should always apply the principle of proximity choice which requires that wastes are treated and/ or disposed at the nearest possible point to abbreviate transferring related problems to other regions. Transportation for solid wastes should always be carried out in fully enclosed systems as different materials are light and seat easily be dispersed away.Since this forms a major point of interaction between the residents and the waste collecting institutions, it is of great importance to ensure that inclusive coordination and cooperation is deepen for effectiveness. Major to wns fail due to lack of effective collection and transportation mechanisms. Of greater concerns have been the plastic bags which have turned the whole solid waste management into a riddle for many towns. Their collection and transportation should therefore be immediate and highly effective. Solid waste treatment

Cell Phones And Academic Performance English Language Essay

Cell Ph singles And Academic Performance English Language Es learnThe adoption of electric cellular shout out earphones by puppylike generation has been a international phenomenon in recent years. Thus, with the emergence of this engineering science al nearly everyone has tried to adopt these cell phones. We found in this research that cell phone routine had a negative impact on students grade point average. Students victimization their cell phone during class, they excessively receiving and s discontinueing schoolbook messages during their class so they were equal to(p) to fabricate less perplexity to take to task and thus it had negative impact on students performance.Key terms Cell phones customs, Academic performance, GPAIntroductionSince the commercialization of cellular phones technology, the use of this communion device has rapidly increased. Today, the world(prenominal) cellular phone market now stands at approximately 1.8 billion subscribers, and is forecast ed to reach 3 billion by the end of 2010 (Reid and Reid, 2007). In Pakistan total subscribers for cell phones till 12 September 2012 conduct reached to 120,513,430 (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority). The adoption of cell phones by young generation has been a global phenomenon in recent years. This cell phone was origin solelyy created for adults for business use (Aoki Downes, 2003). It has become an integral part of adolescents daily life and one of the some fashionable forms of electronic communication. In todays world almost every student is having cell phone in their pocket, clipped to a belt, or hidden in a brief case or purse and knows perfect usage of it. As technology is growing every day at very fast rate, and is livery positive and negative effects for society and so is with cell phone technology that has brought both positive and negative effects. It is commonly observed that these cell phones reach also become status symbol for youth and they control indulged t hemselves in the competition of having best and most updated cell phone with maximum features.Todays youth pick cell phones more as comp bed to internet or any other social activity. Not only young people own cell phone, they have symbolic and affective investment in them (Lobet-maris, 2003) and they also want to upgrade it as soon as new model is launched in the market. Cell phones argon that much involved in our life that the person who own cell phone is tend to be thought socially connected, in subject, modern and in pick up by the society. One of the most used applications of cell phones by our young generation is text pass along and these cellular network companies have also vie a vital role in negatively affecting our young generation by introducing a number of packages for text messaging and calls also. Students of today argon master in fastest text messaging and are seen text messaging term at home, at university, traveling ,in classroom and specially while studying.Co mmunication with fel abject students, professors, parents, and everyone else is just a click away. In New Zealand study 56% of high school students account that the most important spring for using a cell phone was to talk and text with friends and family (Netsafe, 2005).This research paper explores the impact of cell phones usage on students faculty member performance. We examined the affect of busy usage on the grades among university students.Literature Re earnCell phones and academic performanceThe invention of the fixed knell in the late 19th century in the join States changed the way that people interacted and communicated (Marilyn, 2005). This has been paralleled in the early 21st century by the advent of the cell phone (Marilyn, 2005). This is extremely similar to the fixed telephone in the early 20th century, where telephone engineers explained that the telephone was made for the business world and not for social conversation (Flinchy, 1997). The growth of cell phone t echnology is demonstrated by the fact that in 2002 the number of cell phone users worldwide, surpassed those of fixed-phone users (Srivastava, 2005). In 2005, the number of cell phone subscribers worldwide allow for reach 2 billion (Deloitte Research, 2005) and in Australia will reach 19.2 million (Fisher, 2005). And in Pakistan total fixed phone subscriber by December 2011 reached to only 3,098,117, less than ready phone subscriber that were 120,151,253 till December 2011 (Pakistan Telecommunication Authority). In Norway in 1999, 80% of 13 to 20-year-olds owned a cell phone, while in the United Kingdom in 2001, 90% of young people under the age of 16 did so (www.capacitybuilder.co.uk). In 2003, in Italy, 56% of children aged 9 and 10-years-old owned cell phones and of the 44% who didnt, all expressed a desire to own one (Guardian Unlimited, 2003), and amongst teenage girls in Tokyo, the adoption rate is almost 100% (Srivastava, 2005). In Australia in 2004, a retrospect by iTouc h found that 50,000 children aged between 5 and 9 years of age owned a cell phone, one third of children aged 10 to 13-years old and 45% of 13 to 15-year-olds also owned the device (Allison, 2004). Surveys have consistently shown that young people even choose their cell phone to television or the Internet (Enpocket, 2005 Hession, 2001). It is childrens favourite method of communication (Livingstone Bober, 2005) with younger adolescents (school years 7 to 9) more attached to their cell phones than older adolescents (school years 10 to 12) as they reported needing to return home to collect their phone if they forget it (Matthews, 2004). Young people also save text messages which they take account and cherish (Taylor Harper, 2003).Thus, with the emergence of this technology almost everyone has tried to adopted these cell phones.The main gist for teachers is the disturbance created in class room due to cell phone calls and texting. The functionality of SMS lets students send and re ceive messages unobtrusively (Geser, 2004). Combining this with the ease of hiding the device due to its small size, renders it very difficult for teachers to control. Because of the short time adjoin in which an answer is expected to a message (Kasesniemi Rautiainen, 2002), the excitement of finding out who has called and what the message is (similar to snail mail letters), young people are indisposed(p) to turn off their cell phone during class time. In an Italian survey of 9- and 10-year-olds, 86% of students who owned cell phones kept them on during lessons (Guardian Unlimited, 2003). The New Zealand survey also found that 66% of students who took a mobile phone to school kept it turned on at school (Netsafe, 2005).Campbell (2006) found that students and faculty view the ringing of cell phones in class to be a serious difficulty. It is clear that if students are spending time texting, they are not paying tutelage to the class lecture, will not be able to understand the top ic and will not be able to produce good result in class, this will have impact on their grade points. Through common observation today students are busy with this technology, spends 90% of their time with cell phones and dont pay attention to their studies. And if they pretend to their parents that they are studying in their room, they are actually dodging their parents, it is such a small device that they drive out easily pass over them and lie with their parents. Students are trying to make as many friends whether girl or boy as they can, keeping themselves busy all day and night, as these network companies for their own profit have introduced a lots of cheap packages for call and messaging. All these activities in which students have engaged themselves in todays world are demolishing their present and future.Students are using this technology not only for text messaging in class but also use it as source of cheating in examination. Students have always cheated via taking notes into class, or writing notes on hands (Ling, 2000a). For example, 12 students at the University of Maryland were caught cheating during an accounting exam (Anonymous 2003).With many cell phones now incorporating a digital camera or video, at that place is a danger in schools, colleges and universities that inappropriate pictures will be taken because of the portability and discrete nature of the camera (Marilyn, 2005). Pictures can be taken quickly without the knowledge of the person being photographed.Stealing of cell phones is also an issue which can impact on school staff (Williams Williams, 2005). Most victims of mobile phone theft are under 18 years of age and the phones are stolen by the same age group as well. This can put additional strain on school administration if the theft occurs at or near school and staff are expected to investigate (Marilyn, 2005). afterward explaining negative aspect there are some positive impact also, it helps students to assay connected with t heir group members when assigned some group work from their teacher. In school it also helps teacher to tell their parents most any serious problem happened to the students and also helps teacher to text their parent if they are absent from school.Students are supposed to use mobile phones whole night texting their friends. It is interesting to note that there are few common family rules about young peoples use of the cell phone. In fact, many adolescents (58%) reported that there were no rules set by their parents about their cell phone use, and only 12% reported that their parents used removal of their cell phones as punishment (Matthews, 2004). In New Zealand, this increased to 26% of young cell people reporting being threatened, with the phone being confiscated, as a form of punishment (Netsafe, 2005). It has been found that some young peoples sleep is harebrained when friends call them on their cell phone to talk or when a text message is deposited (Anderson, 2003). In New Ze aland 11% of young people reported being woken every night by a text message or voice call (Netsafe, 2005). Probably because of the sleeping issue it has been found that the most common rule set by parents (56%) was that children have to leave their cell phones out of their rooms at night. Ten percent of young people also reported that their parents frequently had to call for them to stop using their mobile phone late at night with 12% saying that this was the most common distinction between them and their parents (Matthews, 2004).Along with academic performance cell phones have also positively and negatively affected social relationships. With the emergence of mobile phones individuals are able to stay connected with their friends, family and relatives living abroad. In addition to keeping up with social relationships, individuals have also been able to increase productivity with their work because they can be hundreds of miles away from the office, and still have instant access to their e-mail, documents and contacts wherever they are (Tully, 2003). A trend that is becoming more apparent is present absences this is the idea of how an individuals presence in a social setting changes regardless of their physical presence, they are only half-present (Fortunati 2008). After a ring or buzz of their cell phone, they are drawn away somewhere else, away from their present situation and/or conversation. Through observation, researchers have found that individuals typically will not weave to interrupt an ongoing conversation to answer the ringing of their cell phone.Cell phones have given a new way to individuals to form new relationships and to fort existing ones. Teens admitted spending nearly an equal amount of time talking as they do texting each month. The feature is so important to them that if texting was no lasting an option, 47 percent of teens say their social life would end or be worsened especially among females (54 percent compared to 40 percent of males) (CTIA Survey 2008). ahead the emergence of mobile technology, individuals have regular interaction with one another. As they have very little telephonic contact with one another so they are used to visit each other homes regularly. Even if any one of the family member is in hospital, their loved ones even if out of city make a visit instantly or the next day but now with the emergence of cell phones people are supposed to just ask about their health on phone call with their cell phones.HypothesisCell phones usage will have a negative affect on students academic performance.ModelCell phone usageAcademic performanceMethodologyThe data was collected by distributing questionnaire to students of different universities in Pakistan with the ages ranging between 18 and thirty. A sample size of 150 students was taken in which 65 respondents were male and 85 respondents were female.The survey consisted of 24 questions, including cell phone impacts on students academic performance and social relationship. Multiple choice questions were asked. The reliability of the instrument was calculated by using SPSS. The instrument was personally administered to the sample. Demographic information (e.g., age, gender, university, degree, GPA) was also collected.ResultsAfter successfully collecting the data through distributing questionnaires in different universities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad, we have inserted that data in SPSS software data sheet and run desired functions incumbent to know that what impact does independent variable (cell phone usage ) have on dependent variable (students academic performance). We have evaluated students academic performance by considering their GPA.From the correlation results as shown in shelve 1, we have find that cell phone usage is having negative impact on students GPA i.e. (r= -0.303, pTABLE 1Correlation ResultsM S.D 1 2 3 4Age 21.487 1.8672 1Gender 1.58 0.49521 -0.184*Cell phone usage 3.267 0.4512 0.045 -0.149 1GPA 1.9911 0.57583 -0.154 0.246** -0.303** 1**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).TABLE 2Regression ResultsPredictor Academic performance(GPA) Sig. quality 1Age -0.27 0.164Gender 0.205 0.006Step 2Age -0.26 0.167Gender 0.169 0.020Cell phone usage -0.212 0.072 0.001The table 2 shows the regression result of dependent and independent variable. In step 1 control variables i.e. age, gender is shown and in step 2 independent variable i.e. cell phone usage is shown. In horizontal line we have dependent variable i.e. academic performance measured using students GPA.The fluctuation in students academic performance (GPA) due to cell phone usage is 72%. The impact of cell phones usage on student academic performance is negative i.e. ( = -0.212). Which implies that the student whose usage of cell phone is more is having low GPA i.e. video display poor academic performance.DiscussionIn this research paper we have evaluated that wh at impact students cell phone usage has on their academic performance by considering their GPA. Students age and gender is also taken into account while running analysis using SPSS. Cell phone usage is taken as independent variable and students academic performance is taken as dependent variable. Questionnaires are given to be filled by students of different universities in Rawalpindi and Islamabad between the age of 18 and 30. The data collected is analyzed by using SPSS software and evaluated the impact of cell phones usage on students academic performance.The result shows that cell phones usage is negatively impacting students academic performance. This means that the students who are using cell phone more are having low GPA. On asking questions on how much time they spend on using their cell phone and in how many classes they use cell phone, we have found that there is negative relationship of these two questions with students GPA. That is the students who are using cell phone a lmost 7-10 hours and those also who use cell phone during their most of the classes are having low GPA. On asking random questions we have found that one of the most used feature of cell phone is text messaging used by 67% students (female 37% and male 30%). Almost 81% students (female 46%, male 35%) are using standard text messages as compared to multimedia messages or other. 43% students (31% female and 13% male) say that they put their mobile phone on silent mode while tending class. 35% students (20% female and 15% male) say that they occasionally receive or send text messages while the class was in session. 55% students (35% female and 20% male) agree on policy that mobile should be kept by students but they should set it in vibration mode. 61% students (40% female, 21% male) say that they do not use night packages on their cell phone. 42% students (23% female, 19% male) say that they use day packages on their cell phone. 67% students (39% female, 27% male) say that they spent 10% of their pocket money on cell phones. 56% students (32% female, 24% male) say that they sometimes use their cell phone while doing their assignments.As results show that those students who spend most of their time on cell phone are achieving low GPA, which is in accordance with the literature and common observation. Students are using their cell phone during class, they are also receiving and sending text messages during their class so they will be able to pay less attention to lecture and thus it will have negative impact on students performance. Some students are also using night packages on their cell phone which will make them unable to be attentive in their morning class or may be unable to attend the first class. It is better to prompt missed call alert on their cell phone and put it off during class and when they will on it they will receive message of all the calls they missed when the cell phone was off. In last concluding all cell phone usage is significantly impacti ng our youth who are misusing this technology, and thus showing poor academic performance and demolishing their career opportunities.

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology EssayComplete destiny of metaphase chromosome is called karyotype. It is astray used to detect the chromosomal abnormalities that be related to the divisortic diseases and various type of undersurfacecer. As the biomedical science advances, various kinds of techniques be used to study the benignant karyotype. These karyotype analysis are widely used in genetic advocate to minimize the bump of having unfortunate. By doing so, individual and families are realized to put through the genetic testing.In genetic counseling, knowledge of karyotype analysis is greatly determined the inheritable diseases including cancer. Moreover, Pedigree construction based on Mendelian principles is used in old days to know the pattern of inheritance. In recent year, FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization), PCR (polymerase chain reaction), CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) arrays are develop ed for the promising future of human genetics. Among them FISH is the most currently diagnostic tool for the various chromosomal dementias that can be visible in karyotype analysis. The most tested chromosomes are 13, 18, 21, 22, X and Y that account for 85% of chromosomal abnormalities (Rodrigo et al., 2010). But now, genetic scientists chip in been carried come out of the clo establish the approaches towards all chromosome analysis. On the other hand, the high luck society is greatly interested to do pre pregnancy counseling to reduce the inheriting defective gene for the next generation. Therefore, use of karyotype analysis is to a greater extent and more improved in genetic counseling for the screening and diagnosis as well as the treatment and prevention.KaryotypingKaryotype construction and analysis is the powerful diagnostic method to identify the chromosomal studies in human genetic. Karyotyping is usually done at the metaphase of cell cycle in which the chromosome struct ure is the most condensed. Therefore, it is also known as complete set of metaphase chromosome (Nie et al., 1998).There are 46 chromosomes in human (22 autosomes and sex chromosomes). Karyotype show the number of chromosomes, the sex chromosome content, the presence or absence of individual chromosomes and the nature and terminus of any structural abnormalities. Karyotyping can be accessed under a microscope to examine the number and structural variants which must be size of 3 Mb or more. Only DNA sequencing can be observed smaller alterations (Klein and Tibboel, 2010).Chromosomes in human karyotype are categorized into seven depend on their bands after fleck procedure. Each group is arranged into A to G defined by size and centromere position. These dance band patterns help to identify specific defect regions on the chromosome. Thus, the any defect in chromosome region can be described as an accurate address. For example 1q2.4 defines as chromosome number 1, q arm, region 2 and the banding 4 (Trask, 2002).MethodFor karyotype construction, the specimen can be taken from the white blood cell, skin cells, amniotic fluid cells and the chorionic villus cells. Then the cells are prepared to enter the mitosis and arrested in the stage of metaphase. Moreover, these preparations are treated with trypsin and staining to get the banding pattern. After that, video camera attached microscope directly send the images to the data processor to generate the karyotypes (Yang et al., 2000).Generally, it could be used to determine if chromosome of an self-aggrandising be in possession of abnormality or defect that can be passed on to a child. The first of convoluted chromosomal defect is identified by apply standard G-band procedures, fluorescent staining and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). FISH is a recent technology to detect the specific chromosome structure by using particular DNA probes. This method is more acc urate and enables to see the micro-deletion and exact kibosh point involved in each chromosome (Ligon et al., 2997).Doing the karyotype analysis is benefit in pregnant women at the age of 35 and having the history of previous child with defect. Because of the risk of chromosome abnormalities dramatically increased in advanced maternal age and if the mother is an X-linked carrier, the recurrent risk is 1 to 2%.Therefore, antenatal screening tests including karyotyping are carried out to a defined population who are at risk of having a specific condition. Different tests are done in different stages of pregnancy. Chorionic villus taste is offered at 11-12 weeks of pregnancy, Amniocentesis is done at 16 weeks and fetal blood sampling is carried out at 18-22 weeks of pregnancy. Although these all procedures are having risk of miscarriage, they are fitted for the chromosomal and DNA analysis (Callen et al., 1988). Especially, for the detecting of trisomies in chromosome 13, 18, 21, X and Y which account for more than 85% of all fetal aneuploidies.As a benefit, if a copulate with a known risk to offspring, they can choose options to avoid or plan further pregnancy. If the male partner is change, the couple has option for mawkish insemination of sperm from a donor. If the womanly is affected with a dominant condition or X-linked carrier, the couple has option for egg donation from another female. Moreover, the relatively late procedure is pre- implantation genetic diagnosis. Initially, this process requires in vitro fertilization. If the fertilization occurred, one cell is removed from the stage of blastocyst and then investigated for the chromosomal disorder. If there is no defect, it give be returned to the uterus (Fukuda et al., 2007).In the molecular genetics, DNA testing is divided into four main categories which are diagnostic testing, carrier detection, pre symptomatic testing for adult onset diseases and prenatal diagnosis. In the genetic counseling, karyotype analysis is widely used in carrier detection incase of balance translocation carrier, autosomal dominant recessive, X-linked female carrier disorder in order to evaluate the risk of having an affected child. Furthermore, karyotyping can be used as a pre symptomatic or prognostic test in some individual who are at risk of an adult onset disorder to determine whether or not they carry the mutated gene for these disorders. This test is value for autosomal dominant condition because of having a chance is 50% if one parent is affected. For example, familial adenomatous polyposis, colon cancer, Huntington disease (Bodmer et al., 1991).Chromosomal aberrationsAbnormalities of the chromosomes, these are large enough to be visible under the light microscope are termed chromosomal aberrations. They are usually classified into numerical abnormalities and structural abnormalities. Numerical aberration is the disordered of chromosome due to error in separation of chromosome in cell c ategory. Aneuploidy represents gain or redness of a specific whole chromosome due to hardship of paired chromosome in meiosis. The one with extra copy of chromosome is called trisomy and the one with missing copy of that chromosome is called monosomy. These can be seen either autosome or sex chromosome. autosomal trisomy will result in early miscarriage and monosomy of an autosomal chromosome is not compactable with life. Autosomal trisomy is associated with increased maternal age (Harper et al., 1995).Similarly, polyploidy represents a complete extra set of chromosomes due to fertilization by two sperms (dispermy) or failure in maturation divisions of either the eggs or the sperm. For examples, triploidy and tetraploidy depending on the number of extra sets of chromosomes. Triplody occurs in 2% of all conception but early self-produced abortion is usual (Munne and Cohen, 1998).The most commonly seen autosomal aneuploidies are trisomy 21-Downs syndrome (47, XX, +21 or 47, XY, +21 ), trisomy 18-Edwards syndrome (47, XX, +18 or 47, XY, +18), trisomy 13-Pataus syndrome (47, XX, +13 OR 47, XY, +13). Sex chromosomal aneuploidies are Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY), XYY syndrome (47, XYY), Triple X syndrome (47, XXX) and Turner syndrome (45, X).Autosomal monosomy is mostly lethal and autosomal trisomy is relatively more common (Rodrigo et al., 2010). The commonest autosomal trisomies are Downs syndrome, Patau syndrome and Edwards syndrome. The kayotype of Downs syndrome is 47, +21, an extra copy of chromosome 21. It occurs in 1 in 900 live births and leading cause of puerility mental retardation and midriff defect (Wald et al., 1997). Patau syndrome is usually set in motion at the time of doing cytogenetic analysis in malformed children. It also revealed extra chromosome at chromosome number 13 (47, +13) (Rasmussen et al., 2003). some other trisomy is the Edwards syndrome (47, +18). It accounts for a frequency of 1 in 11,000 live births (Massiah et al., 2008).An euploidy of the sex chromosomeAneuploidy of the sex chromosomes is more common than the autosomal aneupolidy but have less impact. Unlike the autosome, monosomy for Y chromosome is always lethal whereas monosomy for the X chromosome is a viable condition. The commonest syndromes that have ever seen in clinical setting are Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Triple X syndrome and XYY syndrome (Smith et al., 1960).Monosomy of X chromosome results in 45, X karyotype due to non-disjunction in either parent. It is estimated that 1% of all conception from which 95 to 99% of all 45, X embryos die before birth. They have significant defect in height, sexual development and fertility but there is no mental retardation (David et al., 1986).The karyotype of Klinefelter syndrome is 47, XXY. The extra X chromosome of maternal origin is 56% and paternal is 44%. It is usually arise from non-disjunction at either the first or second meiotic division (Lamb et al., 1996). For example, if the fathe r produces XY sperm that is particular over with maternal X ovum to produce XXY. This is the single commonest cause of hypogonadism and infertility in male. Overall the birth incidence of 47, XXY is 1 in chiliad male with an increased risk at maternal age and azoospermatic infertile males (Steinberger et al., 1965).And the karyotype of super female syndrome is 47, XXX which also known as triple X syndrome. It is usually appears as clinically normal but 15- 25% are mildly mentally handicapped. About three quarter of the affected females is fertile of which one- one-half of their offspring would expect to have this syndrome (Michalak et al., 1983). Furthermore, another karyotype defect associated with personality disorder is 47, XYY syndrome. It is firstly noted in 1965 cytogenetic survey in male for convulsive and dangerous antisocial behavior and about 4.5% of the males in this survey were shown as XYY karyotype. The frequency of having this characteristic karyotype in general po pulation is 1 in railway yard birth according to the sub sequent studies. The recurrence risk for the offspring would be 2XXY 2XY 1XX 1XYY due to production of YY sperm at the second meiotic division or post-fertilization non-disjunction of the Y (Staessen et al., 2003).Structural aberration is the disordered in the structure and shape of the chromosome resulting from chromosomal breakage and error in rejoin mechanisms. Translocation is the transfer of chromosomal material between non-homologous chromosomes but there is no DNA loss. Three recognizable translocations are reciprocal, centric fusion (Robertsonian) and insertion. The one important thing in translocation is the balanced reciprocal translocation which occurs in two non-homologus chromosomes (Michael and Malcolm, 1997). In normal population, 1 in 500 are known balanced carrier and they are clinically healthy but they can give a problem when they reproduce. It is possible for the balanced translocation carrier to pass o n the translocation in nauseous form that can lead to miscarriage and physical or developmental problem (Munne et al., 2000).Deletion is the loss of a part of chromosome that can cause phenotypic effect because of the loss of gene. For a deletion to be seen in karyotype analysis, the amount of deletion must be large. It may also occur as a result of an unbalanced translocation (Barber, 2005). Although deletion of a small piece of chromosome is not a serious problem, deletion of entire chromosome is lethal. Therefore, only a few viable conditions are found in large deletion. These are the listed belowAdapted from Human Heredity Principles and Issues, seventh edition, 2006Region of deletionRelated disease5p-Cri du lecture syndrome11q-Wilms tumour13q-Retionblastoma15q- (maternal uniparental disomy)Prader- Wills syndrome15q- (paternal uniparental disomy)Angelman syndromeCri du chat syndrome is caused by deletion in short arm of chromosome 5 and incidence is 1 in 100,000 births (Cerrut i, 2001). A characteristic feature of the affected child is having a sound of cat like cry (Niebuhr, 1978). The phenotype is slightly different depend on their chromosome break point. There are two regions of break point in the short arm of chromosome 5 have been identified in this syndrome. Loss of chromosome segment in 5p15.3 results in abnormal larynx development and deletion in 5p15.2 is associated with mental retardation (Overhauser et al., 1994 Simmons et al., 1995).Prader-Willi syndrome and Angleman syndrome are caused by deletion in region 15q11-13 or by uniparental disomy (Ledbetter, 1981). If both copies of chromosome are inherited from the father, the child will have Angelman and from the mother, the child will have Prader-Willi syndrome (Horsthemke, 1996). The incidence of Prader-Willi is 1 in 10, 000 whereas Angelman is 1 in 20, 000 live birth (Clayton-Smith, 1993 Petersen et al., 1995). Characteristic feature of Prader Willi syndrome is sleepiness and Angelman is bouts of laughter (Zori et al., 1992). These cytogenetic microdeletions in the long arm of chromosome 15 can be visible by using either FISH (fluoresce in situ hybridization) or DNA analysis with probes from the deleted region (Nicholls, 1994).The others structural abnormalities include duplication, inversion and mosiacism and the rare structural variants are fragile site, heteromorphisims, isochromosome and ring chromosome.Cancer geneticsSome of the cancer can be discover by karyotype analysis. The connection between chromosome rearrangement and cancer is evident in leukemia. The specific chromosome translocation between chromosome 9 and 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome. That can be used as well defined diagnostic tool and prognostic factor. Moreover, this specific translocation is associated with other forms of cancer including Burkitts lymphoma and multiple myeloma.Chromosome translocation associated with haematological cancersTranslocation siteType of cancert(922)Chronic mye loid leukemia (Rajasekariah et al., 1982)t(814), t(822), t(28)Burkitts lymphoma (Margrath, 1990)t(821)acute myeloblastic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1976)t(418)follicular lymphoma (Fleischman and Prigogina, 1977)t(418)acute lymphocytic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1977)The proportion of leukemia with a heritable component has been estimated as 25% in monozygotic twin. Risk to sibs in childhood leukemia is 2- 4 times higher than the population incidence. The risk of a relative developing Hodgkins disease is seven fold higher than other (Kelly, 1992).Genetic counselingGenetic counseling should be offered to both parents and must give adequate time under appropriate setting. Depth of explanation should be matched to education minimize of the couples, outlining of clinical features, complication, natural history, prognosis and effective management (Frets et al., 1991). Simple Explanation of the genetic basic of the condition with the aids of diagram and recurrent risk tally should be car ried out (Sermon, 2002).Furthermore, genetic counselor can give the suggestion to reduce the risk of having disorder. The options are no further pregnancy, adoption, in vitro fertilization with pre implantation diagnosis, artificial insemination-AID by donor (egg donation), term pregnancy, OR ignore and accept the risk (Zare et al., 1973). AID is performed for husband with AD trait or both are carrier for a serious AR (Taranissi, 2005).The important thing in genetic counseling must be non- judgemental and non-directive. The aim is to deliver a balanced version of the facts which will permit the consultants to reach their own decision with regard to their reproductive future.In UK, congenital disabilities act of 1976 legal action can be brought against a person whose breach of duty to parents results in a child being born disabled, abnormal or unhealthy. Prenatal diagnosis with selective termination of pregnancy became a reality in UK with the abortion ACT OF 1967 (Macintyre, 1973). AD trait is the risk to each child of an affected person is 1 in 2. Disorder has high penetrance, most dominant trait shows variable expression. AR trait for the carrier parents, the risk recurrence risk is 1 in 4 diseases, 2 in 3 chance of being carrier (Yoshikawa and Mukai, 1970).In X-linked recessive trait, if females are obligate carrier, one half of her sons will be affected and one half of her daughter will be carrier. If affected male reproduce, there will be normal sons and carrier daughters. Nowadays, biochemical tests may be available for carrier detection, but because of X inactivation few of these are absolute and this information needs to be combined with the pedigree risk using Bayes theorem (Markova et al., 1984).Conditions need for genetic counseling and investigation (Watson et al., 1992)1. Infertility one in ten of all couples are involuntarily infertile, such a couple need chromosomal analysis to exclude a balanced structural rearrangement and Klinefelter syndrom e.2. Recurrence miscarriage one of six pregnancy ends as a spontaneous miscarriage. 3-5% of cases have a balanced structural rearrangement3. Still birth4. Perinatal death with multiple malformationsConclusionThe benefit of karyotype analysis in high risk population provides the prevention and early management options to minimize the risk. As the genetic science development, researchers and clinician have more advanced diagnostic tool like manifold PCR, SNP microarray, CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) to identify the far more complex chromosome abnormalities. Although karyotyping by FISH can detect both balanced and unbalanced translocation, uniparental disomy can only be detected by SNP arrays and high output sequencing. Despite the high cost, enormous benefit can be found for the society to evaluate the superior treatment protocols and genomic technologies for the future.

Relationship Between Stress and Physical Illness

Relationship Between Stress and Physical IllnessNadine Thompson blueprint and evaluate research investigating the link between line and physical illness.The presence of stress has been identified as an important attribute to psychological well-being. However, done a considerable quantity of research, Psychologists have suggested that psychological encounters are capable of altering various aspects of the resistive repartee. Supporting this, Frese (1985) suggested that stress is frequently involved in 50-70% of all physical illness (McIlveen, Gross, 1996, p.171). Therefore, it will be deliberated that Seyles research led to the development of psychoimmunology which is an area of study investigating the relationship between psychological factors and the immune system of the body. (Hayes, 2000, p.404) This essay will analyse and combine empirical knowledge referring to psychological stress and the human immune system while emphasising pertinent psychological research and composing evaluative conclusions from the information provided.To begin with, one must be required to consider what is meant by the term stress and the entailment this component has on an individual. As stated by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), the definition of stress is a pattern of negative physiological states and psychological responses occurring in situations where people savvy threats to their well-being which they may be unable to meet. (McIlveen, Gross, 1996, p.169) Subsequently, Lazarus and Folkmans definition of stress is largely accepted by those active in the area of research in this field, thus admitting further research by psychologists to establish the psychological effects of stress. While considering this, the consequences of stress induced on the body must be investigated. The immune system is a mechanism designed to protect and defend the body against antigens such as viruses, bacteria, toxins, and parasites. (Cardwell, Flanagan, 2012, p.136) To guarantee maximum performanc e, this intricate system is attained through the release of two types of lymphocytes B mobile phones and T cells. (Cardwell, Flanagan, 2012, p.136) Therefore, the purpose of the B cell is to produce antibodies which will destroy invading viruses, and the T cell assists the B cell in making antibodies, therefore, destroying invading cells which have initially survived an attack from the B cell. (Science Museum, 2014) As a result, when an individual is stressed it will leave them more supersensitized to infection because the immune system is unable to eliminate antigens.Seyle (1956), who was predominantly interested in the bodys resistance to prolonged exposure in disagreeable situations, either through physical illness or psychological causes, identified the response to long-term stress through humans and animals. To do this he apply a model known as the General Adaptation Syndrome. (Hayes, 2000, p.403) As a result of this, Seyle categorised three key stages of bodily reaction during stressful occurrences. The initial stage is the alarm stage which stimulates the body to release adrenaline, which is then fol poored by a state of resistance, where the bodys resources are employ quicker than they are restored. Consequently, as the individual enters the final stage of exhaustion or also known as the burnout stage, the prob competency of developing a stress related illness significantly increases. (McIlveen, Gross, 1996, p.170) Although Seyles findings were based upon stressors, internal and external sources of stress, (Lawton, Gross, Rolls, 2011, p.1115) produced in non-human animals, therefore making the results non-applicable to human beings, they were still exceedingly recognised to twisting a useful approach for other psychologists in their research into the interpretation of the physiological responses to a stressor.Alternatively, Merson (2001) states that the three stages which the body reacts to, is a result of the presence of a stressor. Additional ly, Merson suggested that the performance of the immune system remains at a regular level throughout the onset of stress. (Bartley, 2013, p.27) Consequently, if the stressor continues, then the immune systems ability to perform reaches its maximum point. However, performance is at its lowest point if the stressor becomes chronic. In support of Mersons theory, several psychological studies have emphasised the observation that short-run stress does non always decrease the functioning of the immune system, but can in fact sometimes enhance it. One of these studies, performed by Dhabhar and McEwen (1997, 2001), determine that the immune system is roused as a result of the fight or flight response. (ncbi, 2006) A term signifying an individuals psychological innate energised response to an intimidating situation, to either fight or run away, basically meaning an overall state of readiness. In an experiment exposing mice to nuts stress over a two hour period, Dhabhar also revealed, tha t large distribution of immune cells was composed by three hormones released by the adrenal gland. These hormones were norepinephrine, epinephrine and cortocosterone. (Wood, 2012) Following this, he find a pattern of choreographed changes in blood levels within these three hormones, exemplifying how the immune cells from areas such as spleen and bone marrow were compelled to move to cause line organs. Therefore suggesting that, short-term stressors can in fact boost the performance of the immune system. However, the psychological responses of a non-human animal cannot be used to formulate human performance.Additionally, Evans et al. (1994) studied the activity of an antibody known as slgA, which helps prevent infection. (Cardwell, Flanagan, 2012, p.137) Evans et al. organised a talk to be given to students by other students, resulting in mild but acute stress. Although these students showed signs of an increase in slgA, they reduced during examination periods extending over sever al weeks Furthermore, Malarkey et al. (1994) proposed that marital arguments lead to weaker immune system functioning, sideline the study of 90 newly-wed couples. As a result, it was suggested that stress has two effects on the immune system acute stress enhances it, whereas chronic stress reduces it.However, Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1984) carried out a earthy experiment to examine the effects of long-term stressors and find out if there was a difference in the immune response of individuals in low and high stress conditions. It was predicted that immunosuppression, measured by the quantity of natural killer cell or T cell activity, would reduce when stress levels were increased. (Lawton, Gross, Rolls, 2011, p.120) Therefore, blood samples were taken from 75 volunteer first-year medical students, 26 females and 49 males, one month before their final exams and again on the first day of their exams, following two examinations. (Lawton, Gross, Rolls, 2011, p.120) These were presumed to be periods of low and high stress. The students were also provided with questionnaires, such as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale SRRS (docstoc, 2010) to assess any psychological symptoms which may have been present. As predicted, the findings emphasised that the blood samples taken after the examinations, contained a declined number of T cells and the immune response was suppressed in participants who suffered from psychological variables. Consequently, Kiecolt-Glaser et al concluded that the examination stress alone did in fact weaken the functioning of the immune system as the participants had a reduced amount of natural killer cells. It had also become apparent that life events, depression, loneliness, and anxiety were all results of a weakened immune response and therefore can be contributed from stress.As a result, it is important to highlight that although Kielcolt-Glasers study is a natural experiment, and thus high in ecological validity, which is a term that refers to whether or not a study can generalise from reserved conduct in a laboratory to natural behaviour in the real world, (Hartas, 2010, p.77) it also lacks restrainer over confounding variables, such as caffeine, nicotine, medication and so on as its carried out in natural surroundings. As a result, it cannot be guaranteed that stress led to the immune response as elements that were not controlled could be accountable.

Woman in Combat Essay -- essays research papers

The idea of women in combat is not unusual anymore. They should be able to fancy combat positions beacause although physical strength matters, the military still needs the intelligence that women can bring. Also, banning women from the combat hurts their military careers. Although women account for only ten per centum of the enlisted personnel (Time, 8/21/95/ Pg. 31), they are still a major part in the armed forces. Their performance recently has generated support from congress and the public for enhancing the role of females in the military. During the Persian Gulf War, women were sent to the Middle East to fly helicopters, service combat jets, refuel tankers, and load laser-guided bombs. Their performance has lead the world to realize that women are extremely useful in combat. Defense secretary Dick Chaney said "Women have made a major region to this war effort. We could not have won without them." Leaders in the field agreed. The Gulf War had the largest deployment o f women in the armed forces in history. These women encountered the same risks as the men they served with. twenty dollar bill one females lost their lives (Holm, Women in Combat The New Reality, pg. 67-68). In the Persian Gulf, there were no exact positions and all areas were equally vulnerable, so the idea of reliable havens for women was not really applicable. By many armed forces policies, females are banned from combat jobs and units, but in the Persian Gulf War females were assigned to battleships, air...

Power and Participation in Development Communication Essay -- Internat

The aim of increase is not clean roads, skyscrapers and a well built transport infrastructure. Development requires the remotion of major sources of unfreedom poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or over activity of repressive states. (Sen, 1999) And in this process communication plays a pivotal role. A strong tool, if use effectively it can mobilize masses and increase aw atomic number 18ness thus empowering the poor and the weakest of the society. Development and communication are inextricably linked. Thus, the concept of development communication is not alien to us. Development communication, as the World Bank effectively defines is the Integration of strategic communication in development projects. However, communication for long has been top-down or in other words linear with no participatory elements, which has led to the failure of many development initiatives. Numerous issues such as who and how are the concerns of the marginalized populations voiced, how are the policy frameworks developed and who is involved in the decision making process began to be highlighted. Beneath these concerns lies the most important and crucial aspect of development communication i.e. corporation. Though technologies possess the potential to improve the lives of many people by giving them a voice, participation becomes a must as it facilitates dialogical communication. This diversity of open and free communication is necessary as it allows identification of problems easily and through the experience and knowledge of both the parties in dialogue, solutions are often found. Participation is defined by some stakeholders as mobilization ... ...nd organizations realize the importance of involvement of the communities towards which they are working for and encourage them to be self-reliant and benefit themselves. whole shebang Cited Sen, A (1999). Development as Freedom. New York Oxford University Press Tufte, T and Mefalopulos, P (2009). Participatory Communication A Practical Guide. Washington D.C. World Bank Arnstein, S. (1969) A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Planning Association, 35 (4), pp. 216-224. Arnstein, S. (1969) A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Planning Association, 35 (4), pp. 216-224. Arnstein, S. (1969) A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Planning Association, 35 (4), pp. 216-224. Tufte, T and Mefalopulos, P (2009). Participatory Communication A Practical Guide. Washington D.C. World Bank