Pre 1900 and Post Poetry Comparison: Christina Rosetti Essay

In this assignment I will be analysing two poems, ‘Cousin Kate’ and ‘The Seduction’. Christina Rosetti wrote ‘Cousin Kate’ in 1879. In this poem Christina describes a cottage maiden who was discovered by a wealthy Lord who appears to fall in love with her but deceives her because half way through it becomes apparent that he is using her for her ability to have a child. The Lord desires a son in order to have an heir to his belongings. During his time with the maiden he comes across Kate who is the maidens younger cousin. The Lord then ditches the Maiden for the younger sexier cousin Kate. When the Lord is with Kate the Maiden discovers she is pregnant with the Lords child and has a baby boy. She has mixed feelings for her son, as she is ashamed of him because she is not married to his father but also proud of him because he is hers. The Maiden does not inform the Lord about their child. Kate fails to inform the Lord that she is incapable of having children because she knows that if she tells the Lord he will ‘dump’ her for another. The Seduction is written by Eileen McAuley and is based in the 1980’s in Blackpool. The poem is about a teenage girl who goes out clubbing for what seems to be her first time. Half way through the night a boy about the same age persuades the girl to join him at an unromantic place near a river and gets her heavily drunk. He then seduces her into having sexual intercourse. Then after 3 months she discover she is pregnant due to that one nightstand. The main elements of ‘Cousin Kate’ are love and relationships, marriage, motherhood abuse of power and wealth, betrayal and the roles of the female characters. I will start with the element of love, there are three different types of love and relationships shown in ‘Cousin Kate’. One type of love and relationship shown is the true love given from the Cottage maiden towards the Lord and the relationship she had with him. She would over look everything he did to her, which he threw back in her face when he ditched her for her cousin Kate. It became apparent that all he wanted from her was the sexual pleasure. The other kind of love and relationship is the pretend love that Kate shows the Lord. She didn’t care what the Lord did to her because all she really wants is his money and wealth. The Lord also shows pretend love towards both the Cottage Maiden and Cousin Kate, he shows this love in order to use them for his pleasure and also to help him get a son/heir. He also couldn’t care less about his relationships with them as long has he got what he wanted. Next I will move onto marriage. There is only one marriage in this poem and that is between cousin Kate and the Lord to quote the poem â€Å"he bound you with his ring†. Kate obviously is only marrying him for the money as she does most things with him for that reason. Motherhood only comes into the poem at the very end where the cottage maiden has the Lord’s child and feels mixed emotions about him, as she is ashamed of him because she is not married to his father but also proud of him because he is hers, to quote â€Å"My fair haired son, my shame, my pride†. Abuse of power and wealth and betrayal enter the poem through the Lords actions like his ability to get whatever girl he wants for whatever he wants e.g. when he goes after the maiden, she falls in love with him but he has no feeling for her he just wants sexual pleasure and a son. He also does the same with Kate but she just goes with him for money nothing else. He betrays the maiden when he ditches the maiden for her sexier, younger cousin Kate. The female roles are basically about the women that have fallen for this wealthy Lords charm then the lord will use these girls for his pleasure. The themes in ‘the Seduction’ are almost the same but vary in certain ways because it is a more modern poem and substances like alcohol and drugs are involved where as in ‘Cousin Kate’ it is more a case of true and pretend love. First of all I will go through the love that the teenage girl drunkenly displays towards the boy. Because she was drunk she wasn’t in the right state of mind so wasn’t thinking straight when she was supposedly falling in love with him. I cannot explore the element of marriage because there is no type of marriage in this poem at all. Motherhood comes into the poem after she discovers that she pregnant in the way she nurturers the baby when it is in her womb and also because she suddenly realises that she is going to miss out on having fun with her friends or have the romantic walks hand in hand with a boy. The teenage boy abuses his power over the girl by abusing the situation and getting her even more drunk than she already was so that he can go through with his plan to have sex with her. The teenage girl feels betrayed by her magazines because they portrayed the image to her saying that her first time would be romantic. She also feels betrayed by the boy as he promised her that he would take her out sometime but he left her and she didn’t see him after that. The role of the female character is to be the target of the teenage boys lust. In both of the poems there are morals in ‘Cousin Kate’ the moral is don’t go with someone just for money or find out a about his personality before going with him and in ‘The Seduction’ the moral is learn to handle your drink and don’t leave with someone you don’t know or can’t trust. The Cottage Maiden show a lot of emotions in the poem and the poem was written in first person so that the writer can express those feeling better. When you write in first person you can express the emotions as though they are your own and it also makes the poem one sided, as you don’t hear any of the lord’s point of views. The mood in the poem is grief-stricken and down as the cottage maiden is always speaking with a non-happy attitude until the end where she becomes unconcerned about her cousin Kate’s fate with the lord as if that her fault she picked that fate and she got what she deserves and that’s that which I think is a bit of a selfish laid back attitude and isn’t right. Christina Rosetti uses a lot of imagery to describe the feelings of the cottage maiden e.g. â€Å"your love was writ in sand† which doesn’t mean that she actually wrote how much she loved him it means that her love wasn’t true it was gone before she even meant it. In â€Å"The Seduction’ Eileen also uses imagery e.g. â€Å"with his eyes as blue as iodine† this uses the image of blue iodine but iodine is actually a yellowish brownie colour which also suggests that Eileen was again implying the idea of how drunk the girl actually was. The mood in ‘The Seductions’ changes half way through because the girls attitude changes from an all starry eyed drunken girl who falls in love with a teenage stranger to a emotional broken down wreck who hates the boy because of what he did to her. Another way that the writers get imagery and mood across to the reader is by using figures of speech like metaphors, personification, similes and rhetorical questions. When the writers use these they help to create the mood of the poem for example when Christina uses the rhetorical question â€Å"why did the great lord find me out, and praise my flaxen hair?† this creates the mood of despair which means a over whelming sadness and she’s wondering â€Å"why did he pick me and ruin my life I could have been pure and had a better future than what he’s left me with.† Another figure of speech is where Christina uses the metaphor â€Å"I could have been a dove† this doesn’t mean that she would actually been a dove, the dove is a sign of purity which when she uses it in this sentence she means that the cottage maiden would still be innocent. In ‘The Seduction’ Eileen uses the simile â€Å"green as a septic wound† to describe a dirty old river by which the boy truants and gets ‘high’ from taking drugs, she uses this simile to create a depressing mood because it is such an unromantic, disgusting place he has taken her to and by this point in the poem the reader knows something isn’t going to go the way the girl planned. The place that the boy takes her to is described in a few different ways, another way is â€Å"far from the blind windows of the tower blocks† and this describes the place as hidden away from the rest of the world and this also gives a reason why he does what he does here and that is because there won’t be any witnesses to back up any court case the girl might have put against the boy. The male characters in the two poems are both deceiving characters that use charms to get what they want and in both cases it is a girl they want to use for sexual intercourse. They are presented as cunning men who only desire one thing, sex. They treat the women with disrespect to quote ‘cousin Kate’ â€Å"he wore me like a silken knot† which means that he treats her as he would treat a piece of clothing easy taken off or put back on when wanted. Now I will quote ‘The Seduction’ with â€Å"She giggled, drunk and nervous, and he muttered ‘little slag'† this suggests that he doesn’t care who the girl is as long as he gets what he wants and it also suggests that he will take advantage of any girl no matter how drunk she is. In my opinion the writer wants us to feel that they are selfish cruel men as both the writers describe them in this way, to quote ‘Cousin Kate’ â€Å"He saw you at your fathers gate, chose you and cast me by† this indicates that he doesn’t care about the maidens feelings when he casts her by he just wants a better looking girl that suits his every need but he does not yet know that Kate is unable to produce a child otherwise I predict he would also cast her by. The female characters are the foundations for both of the poems and we know more about them than we know about any of the male characters. We know that both of the main female characters suffer from an unwanted pregnancy and are presented as young innocent girls who are seduced by the male characters and both are left to carry the burden and shame of their unwanted pregnancies. The girls have a few different ways of reacting to their situations they react by being upset, disillusioned, bitter, frightened and angry to quote ‘The Seduction’ â€Å"And on that day, she broke her heels of her high white shoes (as she flung them at the wall). And realised for once that she was truly truly frightened, but more than that cheated by the promise of it all† this suggests that she becomes frightened by the thought that she can never regain her innocence and dreams. They are then both stereotyped by society as being ‘loose women’, the type that sleeps with any man. In the ‘olden days’ single pregnant women would be cast out of society, very poor and classed as the lowest of the low where as today they would receive all types of benefits from the local government and would not be frowned upon. The cottage maiden is a strong character because she has chosen to live and raise her son independently without the help of the Lord but the teenage girl is more afraid of societies reaction to her pregnancy and wants to run away from the shame. I think the poems are both wake up calls to open our eyes to see the poverty that goes on around us and even though they are set in different times that, message will always need to be heard as poverty is always going to be there whether we like it or not. I respect only the cottage maiden in ‘Cousin Kate’ because of the way she way mistreated but stayed with the Lord because she of the true love she showed towards him and then when he throws her love away for Kate, she becomes a stronger women and embraces society so that her and her son can live a happy life. Society has change a lot over the last 150 years because now everyone is treated as an equal and it doesn’t matter what religion, race or his or her class is, I am not saying that stereotyping doesn’t happen as that will always be an ongoing factor of life. In conclusion, we can see that the poems are very similar in there themes as they are both about girls that get seduced into having sex or a sexual relationship. Both poems also have the same moral behind them, get to know the person before you go to far develop a sexual relationship.

Dream of equal schooling Essay

Mr. Borsuk also found that with the exception of the element of religion in the voucher schools—an issue many feel is a violation of the separation of church and state– â€Å"it’s the same story that’s being played out in urban classrooms across America—a story of poverty, limited resources, poor leadership and broken families. † (2006). Based on firsthand experience observations garnered from visiting each and every voucher school that would allow it, Borsuk concluded that at least ten of the 106 schools visited appeared to â€Å"lack the ability, resources, knowledge or will to offer children even a mediocre education†¦. most of these were led by individuals who had little to no background in running schools and no resources other than state payments. † (Borsuk 2006). Nine of the voucher schools would not allow the reporters to observe their work, making one wonder why the secrecy? Like everything on earth, some bad must come along with the good. Alex’s Academics of Excellence happened to be a school begun by a convicted rapist, and kept on enrolling students even after allegations of drug use by staff on school grounds and a DA’s investigation. Thankfully, Alex’s, along with three others have closed—as a result of outside intervention, not due to parental outcry. Conservatives have focused on the undeniable problems in our public school systems as a reason for the voucher system. They say that the voucher system gives â€Å"choice† to parents and students, but in reality they are more interested in privatizing the schools, effectively removing them from â€Å"public oversight and responsibility. † (Special Voucher 2000). The alternative to the voucher system would be to â€Å"invest in our public schools, not abandon them,† according to the more liberal stance. Our society knows how to teach children, it just tends to do that job in unequal measures. Many times a disproportionate amount of money is spent on the already privileged children rather than on the low income areas. Perhaps the largest distinguishing factor in voucher schools comes down to religion. Many of the students in the voucher program schools pray together in class, read the Bible, the Torah, or attend Mass. Even parents who are not particularly religious feel their children will get a better education and learn moral values when placed in a parochial school. While the religious aspect is a sticking point for those who advocate the separation of church and state, the religious schools are the fastest growing area of voucher schools, and many parents who were interviewed felt their children were receiving a much better education in a parochial school than they did in public schools. Martin Carnoy, a Stanford University professor has been critical of the voucher system, pointing to the fact that other states are not participating. â€Å"No other places jumped on the bandwagon, and I think the reason is they don’t see anything spectacular and terrific happening. Basically, they can live without it. † (Borsuk 2006). It is felt in many sectors that the voucher program has been a huge drain on resources, taking away money and attention from the some 85,000 students who still attend regular MPS schools. These students are effectively losing out so that others can attend private schools. (Borsuk 2006). How do other states feel about the voucher system? The Florida State Supreme Court ruled on January 5, 2006 that Governor Jeb Bush’s pilot voucher program was illegal because it â€Å"violates the provision in the state constitution that prohibits using taxpayer money to finance a private alternative to the public education system. † (OnWEAC 2006). The decision was 5-2 and the court stated that the voucher school program hurt public education because it diverted public dollars into private systems. Voucher schools are being rejected at a national level as in November, 2005, a group of 23 House Republican’s â€Å"bucked its party’s leaders and defeated an effort to include a private school voucher plan in the House budget reconciliation bill. † (OnWEAC 2006). The question remains: What is the future of the Wisconsin Voucher system? From September, 2005 to January, 2006, the number of low income students attending voucher schools dropped sharply, a decline of nearly 1500 students. This could be due to the fact that three voucher schools were closed because they did not meet minimum standards, or perhaps the reasons are more far-reaching. (School Choice 2006). The Laws have recently expanded the eligibility of voucher recipients, now allowing students who are in schools that have ranked in the â€Å"academic emergency† or â€Å"academic watch† category for the past three years to receive vouchers. (School Choice 2006) The Maine Supreme Judicial Court recently upheld a very controversial state law that prohibits students from using publicly funded vouchers for religious schools. Justice Donald Alexander wrote that the â€Å"state is not compelled to pay for religious education; even though the U. S. Supreme Court has ruled that these programs are constitutionally permissible. † (School Choice 2006). Although this was a Maine case, the issue may soon arise in Wisconsin as well. Wisconsin has done its best and tried many alternatives, gone down many roads to improve the education of their children. Nobody can fault them for this, however it is clear that it is still far from a level playing field, and that more reforms are in order, more programs that guarantee each child a quality education. References: Borsuk, Alan J. (January 3, 2004). Dream of equal schooling is unrealized. Accessed on May 3, 2006 from: http://www.jsonline.com

Essay on how man is destroying the Environment Essay

Man is an integral part of the environment, yet he is the arch-enemy of it. For centuries man has been thriving on its generosity. But in his quest to make life very simpler and more luxurious,, he has turned a blind eye to the damage caused to the environment. Our greed to get the most out of everything has made us contemptuously neglect the environment, although we all know that our very existence depends on it. A careful analysis of why there are imbalances in the environment will highlight numerous mistakes and aberrations on our parts. After doing so, I reason that there are certain traits in us that have led to the present situation. The first is the innate tendency to discriminate. After divining the world into geographical entities by drawing imaginary lines called ‘borders’, man has divided societies on the basic of color, creed, religion etc. The immediate effect of such division is bias. Primarily our world has been divided into major categories based on the qualities of life- developed and developing. Although the word ‘developed’ seems to have comforting implications, the problematic aspect is that these countries have not attained this status without damaging the environment. In fact, they have tampered with it to a great extent. Every element of the environment, be it land or water, has been exploited. The other category, the developing nations, is like a teenager who has just turned adult. He wants to enjoy every bit of comfort and freedom that was till now the prerogative of the developed nations. Lately both the developed and the developing nations woken up to the ramifications of damaging the environment. Various conference and summits have been held to find solutions to the problem. But the outcome of all these has been the same; no consensus has been reached on how to preserve the environment. The prime reason of the discord is the question of responsibility. Both the parties present their own set of arguments to evade the issue. The developing nations allege that it is the developed which have misused natural resources and hence, the onus is on them to preserve the environment and undo their actions that have led  to the present scenario. At the end of the day, the victim of this blame game is the environment, which is languishing due to mankind’s apathetic nature. In order to progress, every country needs to set up industries for manufacturing essential commodities. Both the developed and the developing nations have extensive set-up of such industries that cause more pollution than any other thing on the planet. The amount carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by these has already reached dangerous levels. Carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is the main cause of global warning. It has been reported that the average global surface temperature has risen by 0.56 degree C. One of the effects of this surge is that the Antarctic ice caps have stared melting thereby making the sea level rise. Based on their respective findings, concerted scientists fraternity has been trying to draw the attention of the policymakers to the grave situation that we have put ourselves in. Some lo-lying areas are already facing the threat of being submerged by rising sea levels. The increase in average temperature has also caused warming of sea waters. We all are well aware of EI Nino that occurs dues to warming of the Pacific. Countries, particularly those encircling the Pacific, are the worst affected by the weather disturbance that it brings along. Heat waves, one of such weather problems, kill a large number of people very year. The above paragraph present a global picture of discrimination and divided politics. Even within a country we find it very common. We do not have to rack our brains to find a suitable example. Our very own India has deeply entrenched caste lines. People of superior castes believe that certain activities should be carried out only by those from the lower strata of the society. Cleaning drains and toilets and picking rags from the streets are expected to be carried out by these people. If these workers go on leave, no individual from the upper echelons of the society would engage himself in such work. Young individuals from lower castes ni longer wants to continue with this petty work and want to pursue something that is socially more acceptable. It has widened the demand-and-supply gap resulting in squalid surroundings. If people understand their duties and change their outlook a  bit, the problem can be readily solved. As has been practiced in the developed countries for years now, home owners should themselves collect and dump the garbage at the local collection point. They should not look down upon this because keeping’s one’s surroundings clean is not dis-respectable. They should also not expect someone else to do this on their behalf just because that person stands lower on the social ladder. The second trait that has led to the damage of the environment is self-centeredness. The motto of people goes like â€Å"If it suits you, carry on and forget about everything else†. Unfortunately, the word â€Å"everything† is that seems to refer o the environment because it is that one thing which everyone tends to forget about. Again, no better example comes to mind other than India to substantiate this. Right from the festivals, to holiday trips to part celebrations, our actions disrupt the balance in nature. Starting with the festival many of them involve submerging sacred status in rivers or seas causing water pollution. Water bodies have self-cleaning ability, but if polluted beyond the saturation point they disturb the aquatic life . Many varieties of fish are known to have become endangered due to our negligence. Some festivals involve blasting crackers which causes air pollution. Not only this, stray animals suffer severe trauma because of the unbearable noise of crackers. Moving on to our overzealous vacation trips, we somehow damage the environment there also. Some of our hill stations have started getting warmer. The rise in temperature is partly due to the vehicles coming to these areas packed with visitors and emitting CO2 copiously. Such scenes have especially become common in places like Mussoorie, Shimla, Khandala, etc, which are close to major cities like Delhi, Mumbai, etc. People do not mind taking their high emission vehicles to these serene places, thus disturbing their ecology. And all this is due to inadequate government policies and the indifferent attitude of the people. It should not be surprising that after enduring so much, the environment also runs out of patience sometimes. And then its fury is unleashed. This is quite evident from the fact that the rise of sea level due to global warming is giving nightmares to scientists across the world. It is posing a serious hazard to the existence of a number of islands by threatening to wipe many  of them off the world map. Nature is hitting mankind back in some other spheres as well. In parts of Indian, climate changes due to heat wave render the crops useless and on occasions this happens right before the harvest. Being primarily an agrarian economy, it becomes very difficult for India to cope with such a challenge. This makes evident that the environment retorts whenever it is tampered. Another very compelling example is that of yaks, Yaks, that are suited to very cold climate and are confined only to upper regions of the mountains, are brought down to lowers areas where tourists throng because they are a major tourist attraction. Lately it has been found that these Yaks meet untimely death because their bodies are not able to adapt to the warmer conditions downhill. In turn there owners suffer heavy loss. Another area where meddling with environment can have dire consequences is land pollution. Whenever waste is not disposed of properly, the dump becomes the perfect breeding ground of pathogens resulting in epidermis such as plague and dengue. Other diseases such as asthma are one the rise in large cities where air pollution is more acute. The groundwater level has been plummeting in more of the cities due to improper use of the precious water resources. Whenever there us scarcity of water, people fight it out to get their share when the local water tankers arrives in their locality. These examples clearly, indicate that whenever man disturbs the environment balance, he is in fact digging his own grave. It is the time man undid the damage done to his surroundings. Both the developed and the developing nations should come together to protect the environment. Instead of questioning each other’s duties, they should collectively strive for a solution and step up their efforts to save the enviroement. In fact, every county should do its bit. Likewise we, in India, should cooperate with the government on its politics and also help formulate new ones to protect the environment. Closing the tap properly and switching off appliances when not in use are some of the basic appliances when not in use are some of the basic measures that require almost no effort on one’s part but still can make a huge difference. Other measures like using public transport, ensuring that surroundings are not polluted during festival celebrations can go al long way towards protecting environment. Effective advertising campaigns proper education imparted to poor people, involving  business hoses, etc, will also pave the way for a better environment. At the end of the day, we must understand that maintaining the balance would not only help us but more importantly, would ensure the very existence of life on Earth.

World War One and its Aftermath, Extract from the Treaty of Versailles Essay

World War One and its Aftermath, Extract from the Treaty of Versailles (1919) - Essay Example notes, as does other writers in this field, that the chief architects instrumental in designing this peace deal – a deal which bashed Germany on the face and left her drop on a myriad of problems, acted so on pressure from the electorates of their respective nations. George Clemenceau- the French Prime Minister, Woodrow Wilson-the American President Vittorio Orlando-the Italian Prime Minister and David Lloyd- the British Prime Minister were the four members of council that deliberated on the peace deal. It is important to point out that Germany was excluded from the talks and their fate was determined by the council of four2. Kitchen seems to employ a neutral ground rather than that of criticism in his articulation of facts and opinions. He appears not to be holding belligerent views with other writers on this topic but instead, concurs to a larger extent with what is in other texts. His focus is on a sober audience who intends to find out historical facts free from personal prejudice and judgment, something, which I believe, is the underlying drive for this work. One exception though, he doesn’t seem to agree with those who are quick to blame the Versailles treaty as the direct cause of world war two. He instead has Hitler and his limitless ambitions to blame. The culmination of the bloody war which had far reaching effects on nations and humanity, which defied definitive calculation, came to a halt with the signing of the peace agreement on 28th of June 1919 in Paris, France. This was the peace treaty with Germany.3 Best 1984 p2 ,points out that there were other lesser treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. The former, he confirms, was crafted by the four council members while the latter was left to the government officials and inter-Allied agencies. What then were the outcomes of the Versailles Treaty? There is a general consensus in the works of many writers that the end result of the treaty was nothing to be desired by the Germans.

Workplace humour is really just a bit of fun. Critically evaluate this Essay

Workplace humour is really just a bit of fun. Critically evaluate this statement - Essay Example Humor is used in all aspects of communication and merely everyone uses it in their conversation (Ann, 2004). These include religious leaders, political leaders, lawyers, doctors, managers, scientists, engineers, educators or directors. People are mostly stressed at work places and offices more than any other place. Documentation has been done and it shows that workplace or office humor is a good stress reliever, boosts morale, unites people, and helps in to ward burnouts. On the other hand it can be used to create hostility in the working environment and to alienate a worker which leaves them stressed at the long run. As a result workplace humor can reduce stress and at times it can be offensive to the employees. Humor is brought about by popular jokes which are mostly associated with employee’s accent, personal hygiene, age, sexual orientation, physical appearances, weight or even their work behavior like poor attendance or closely working with the boss. We are all aware that the lecturers and teachers rated the best in campus and other learning and educational institutions were those with funny stories, jokes; to them these were a way of capturing the attention of the students. It helped in increasing attendance and kept the students awake. The same case applies to work place; in a working environment with humor, the workers are energized and vigorous leading to increased productivity (Bob, 1989). In many instances women are the ones who are mostly offended by humor as many male employees make jokes about their physical characteristics like cleavage, weight and scars. At times many office jokes meant to evoke humor are not received to be jokes. These may lead to conflicts in the organization and lowering morale and productivity. At some organization, great task are involved in trying to balance the funny office humor and its offensive nature. Humor in itself is not a problem, the problem comes in when a person uses

Management Strategy and Decision Making case study - 2

Management Strategy and Decision Making - Case Study Example For instance, one of the main rules of the game is the identification of the standards in the industry that have a direct impact on the winners and losers. Thus, based on the tactics, each organization can apply those actions that best support their corporate and business strategies. Finally, the model of scope is used by the companies to determine the geographical extent in regard to the number of the competitors and customers. Navita’s business strategy include expansion of the existing operations through improvement of marketing techniques, targeted strategic acquisitions, and evolution of its business delivery. Navitas has recorded a strong record of consistent growth evidenced by increased number of students since the year 1995 to 2008 who are the players in this case by extending its customer base to Canada, UK, Zambia, and Kenya, among other regions and countries. For instance, its customers (number of students) increased from approximately 1200 in 2007 to 1500 in 2008. Further, its quality of services has substantially increased due to additional value created by its products and services like enhancement of performance through involvement of the players in different programs that has led to customer satisfaction. In addition, the company has expanded its businesses (scope) to different countries through the tactic of continued diversification and evolution of its business activities aimed at increasing thee customer base and profits (Guruz, 2008). Kaplan’s corporate strategy is based on continued innovation, expansion of its existing services, and customer satisfaction. In Australia, the company’s business strategy includes the acquisition of the local companies in the domestic market and expansion of its services. In terms of players, the company corporate strategy of expansion is in response to its competitors and

Look at Ginsberg's Howl. How would you characterize the world that Essay

Look at Ginsberg's Howl. How would you characterize the world that Ginsberg describes Is he being accurate or is he using hyp - Essay Example The characters he mentions are called â€Å"angelheaded hipsters† (Part 1 Section 3) which makes me think of films about flower power and Woodstock. Many of the incidents he mentions such as being â€Å"expelled from academies† (Part 1 Section 7) or going â€Å"whoring through Colorado in myriad stolen night-cars† may well refer to actual incidents which occurred. I found the details of drug use and car stealing quite shocking. The structure of the first section of the poem in a long single sentence means that the reader experiences it all as a rushed and jumbled stream of consciousness. Piling one image upon another makes it into hyperbole. In the second section the repetition of the name â€Å"Moloch† gives the catalogue of â€Å"visions! omens! hallucinations! miracles! â€Å"ecstacies!† a sinister connotation, suggesting that some evil god is influencing American society for the worst. This is a Judeo-Christian concept, and it contrasts with ot her multi-cultural references such as â€Å"negro streets at dawn† (Part I, Section 2), â€Å"Mohammedan angels† (Part 1, Section 5), â€Å"the Chinaman of Oklahoma† (Part 1 Section 28). Section three was a very sad lament for Carl Solomon where the poet leaves aside all the flourishes and just repeats his solidarity. This part was quite moving. References Ginsberg, A. (1955) â€Å"Howl†. [Poem] Available online at: http://www.wussu.com/poems/agh.htm

Demand & Supply Analysis and Choice of Economic System Essay

Demand & Supply Analysis and Choice of Economic System - Essay Example This essay discusses that a free market economy is a market system where transactions between buyers and sellers are determined only by mutual consent. This excludes that one party gets the deal by duress or deception; it also excludes the intervention of a third party – like government – to force or prevent the market. A free market limits government intervention in the application property rights, contract enforcement and verification of consent. The market economy means an economic system where decisions of production, exchange and allocation of goods and services is mainly determined using information derived from the free interaction of supply and demand established by market forces. There are several limitations of market economic system to be implemented in economy. A free market can occasionally result in formation of monopoly, duopoly, oligopoly or a cartel. Such structures create dominance of suppliers in the particular market to the disadvantage of buyers. Fo r this reason, free market economy can potentially impinge on the rights of a certain segment in the economy. A fair exchange implies a relationship of equality between the persons concerned, which is absent in these scenarios. Sometimes, in a market economy the employer and the employee are not in a relationship of equality. The employer can attempt to dictate terms to the employees, therefore, a safeguarding body is required to ensure payment of minimum wages and to enforce health & safety measures. Provision of Public Goods A free market economy cannot provide provision of pubic goods whose benefits are distributed over a very large population and cannot be directly traced. For instance, roads and national defense cannot be provided by a private enterprise. Therefore, some intervention is needed in the market economic system for these provisions (Grossman, 2005). Provisions for Safety Net A free market economy cannot provide social security to the citizens of the country. A marke t economic system cannot find mechanism to transfer funds from have’s to havenot’s and to help citizens in the lower income groups to rise from the vicious cycle of lower economic strata. State invention is essential for redistribution of wealth and income for functioning of a healthy society. Mixed Economic System A  mixed economy  is an  economic system  in which many private companies and a strong public sector coexist. In other words it is a mixture of ideas of  the market economy and planned economy. The reason some form of a mixed economic system in in place in almost all countries of the world is that mixed economic system fulfills the above mentioned shortcomings of a free market economy. A  government  can promote  free enterprise  while reserving certain areas of the economy through nationalization  , or then it privatize all enterprises while creating a legal framework which limits actions which impinges on the rights of certain segment o f the economy. Most countries today have a mixed economic system to a certain level. Question 2 – Demand & Supply Changes in Metal and Automobile Markets 2.1 - Impact on the Prices of Palladium Metal following Usage of Replacement Metals it is found that the alternative metals will replace palladium in the process of production of an automobile. This implies a leftward shift in the aggregate demand curve for palladium metal because less palladium will be demanded at each price level. This shift is depicted in the graph below by the movement of demand curve from D1 to D2. Since, the supply of palladium is dependent on the rate at which the metal is extracted from the ores, there is not change in the aggregate supply of the metal (Grossman, 2005). The aggregate supply

To Kill a Mocking Bird Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

To Kill a Mocking Bird - Essay Example Racism refers to the belief that there are differences in the ethnic groups on the basis of people’s characters, abilities and status. Racism, hence, classifies people in different groups and considers some races as superior to the others. The concept of racism is losing its colour. It is, however, not justifiable to believe that racism has been eliminated completely from the society. The literature is full of such works which identify the instances of racism in the society from the 20’s till now. Throughout history there have been many forms of racism against different groups of people. One way we can really know is by the writers word in literature or school books. One way has been exposed is in "To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee in which she depicts the racial problems of the Deep South in 1930 (Thernstrom 1997; Claudia 1994; Lee 1960). In To Kill A Mockingbird, Harper Lee uses many characters in the book, including Atticus, Jem, Scout and Tom to convey the major t hemes of the story regarding courage, racism and stereotyping to the reader. The story clearly describes the issue of racism as it was in the 1920s and 1930s in America. It is a story which revolves around a black named Tom Robinson who is accused of raping a girl which he has not even done. Racism can be seen in the very core of the theme of the story. The story shows that blacks have always been treated inferior to other races and because of their ethnicity and colour they have always been blamed for things that they have not even done (Lee 1960). The story shows how a town gets one sided when it comes to the issue of rape of a girl by a black. The black named Tom Robinson provides with enough evidence that he is not committed the crime but no one believes him because of his colour. The treatment of Tom Robinson in the story can clearly tell that the jury was being biased only because he was a black. Not only this but racism is also showed in the words of the characters in the sto ry. As at one instance Scout clearly states that â€Å"He’s just a nigger’ (Lee 1960). Racism as practiced in the society against blacks is seen in the courtroom as told by Lee. This can be clearly seen in the character of Mr Gilmer when he cross examines Tom Robinson. It is seen how Mr Gilmer makes a mockery out Tom’s story. It is seen that even the judge is not objecting to Tom Robinson’s treatment by Mr Gilmer. These racist comments passed by the lawyer against Tom Robinson clearly depict the theme of racism as being practiced in the society against the blacks. Similarly Stereotyping also can be witnessed here as the judges in the courtroom were not paying any particular heed to Tom Robinson’s plea as blacks automatically are considered to be criminals. Therefore it can be said that Chapter 19 is the amalgamation of all these themes together to give out a masterpiece which co-relates the judgment and the main theme of the whole story (Lee 1960; Thernstrom 1997). The story tells as to how stereotyping against the blacks or inferior class is being done in the society and how it is actually affecting the lives of many individuals living in this world. An example of stereotyping is the way people think about Dolphus Raymond without even knowing him. For example in chapter 20 Scout says â€Å"somehow, I didn’t think Atticus would like it if we became friendly with Mr. Raymond, and I knew Aunt Alexandra wouldn’

Human Error by James Reason Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Error by James Reason - Essay Example Referencing around eighty books, 'Human Error' today is cited itself by more than a hundred works by authors like A. Hale, John R. Wilson and E. J. Lovesay etc. The book draws a schism of three parts where the first portion comprising of the first two chapters inoculate the fundamental ideas, research traditions and brings an account of background studies pertaining to errors. The middle part from chapter three to five elucidates the error mechanisms and the common reasons behind a wide range of errors. The final section comprising of the remaining chapters throws light on the result of errors that range from their detection, unintentional contributions to them and the curative steps towards them. As clear from the title, the first chapter of the book elucidates the nature of errors, draws a classification of various types of errors and the strategies that lead to their detection. According to Reason the two major types of errors are similarity-matching and frequency-bias. The second chapter of the book traces back the significant studies done in the area human error which Reason classifies into natural science approach and the engineering approach based on the practice of their research. These are the studies that form the foundation of Reason's Human Error. I Performance Levels and Error Types: In the third chapter, the author introduces a Generic error modelling system that facilitates the identification of three types of error types namely; skill based slips and lapses, rule based mistakes and knowledge based mistakes. The model is rather a combination of ideas on cognitive theories from Rasmussen, Rouse, Anderson, and the Holland, Holyoak, Nisbett, and Thagard. Cognitive Underspecification and Error Forms: "When cognitive operations are underspecified, they tend to default to contextually appropriate, high-frequency responses." 2 The fourth chapter harps around the topic of cognitive under-specification. The author also explains the two factors (Similarity and Frequency) on the basis of which the errors are classified. A Design for a Fallible Machine: The fifth chapter of the book proposes the concept of fallible machine - an information machine that would work precisely for most of the time but would also produce errors at times. The purpose behind such a machine was to create an experimental model that would resemble the behaviours of humans and their tendency towards making the errors. The Detection of Errors: This chapter pertains to the concepts of error detection and their correction. While talking about correction, the author explains two types of error correction mechanisms, namely the low level correction mechanism and the high level correction mechanism of which the former is proposed to work better than the latter. Latent Errors and Systems Disasters: In this chapter the author draws a schism in the types of errors in terms of the accidental contribution to their occurence. Here the two types of errors are Active Errors and Latent

Factors of production and circular flow of income Coursework - 2

Factors of production and circular flow of income - Coursework Example According to Samuelson (2010) the central concern of economics is solving three vital problems: what to produce, how to produce and for whom and the solution lies in making choices between inputs and outputs. The aim of this paper is thus to discuss the factors of production and the circular flow of income. To achieve this, the paper will be divided into various sections. The first section will be discussion on what economics is and the problems it seeks to address. It will also cover the importance of economics and brief explanation of different economies such as the market, command and mixed economy as mechanisms of allocating scarce resources. The second section will address the factors of production: land, labour, capital and enterprise. It will discuss their functions, qualities and how their productivity can be improved. The third section will discuss the circular flow of income which shows flow of inputs and outputs between firms and households or at microeconomics level. Last ly, a brief summary of the main points will be given. What is economics and why study economics? Samuelson (2010: 4) defines economics as â€Å"the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable goods and services and distribute them among different individuals.† It aims at producing the highest combination of quality and quantity of goods and services thus enhancing efficiency. Efficiency according to Samuelson is achieved when no individual’s economic welfare can be improved unless someone else is made worse off (p. 5). When efficiency is achieved the welfare of the whole society is improved. Many people might think that it is not essential to study economics but it has a lot of benefits. According to Lipsey and Chrystal (2011) economics is important in helping to understand the world in which we live and to become astute participants in the economy. It helps us to understand business cycles in relation to credit, unemployment and policies put in pla ce to deal with such crises. It also helps people to understand international trade and the effects of globalisation especially in modern era where production has gone global. Government policies to promote economic growth, use of resources, full employment and price stabilisation are also the product of economic analysis. Economics takes a scientific approach to analysis of issues in the economy and also applies econometrics to economic problems. It is based on the principle of holding other things constant when analysing variables (Gitman and McDaniel, 2008). Economics is divided into two categories: micro and macroeconomics. Microeconomics deals with markets, firms and households while macroeconomics deals with the whole economy but we shall concentrate on microeconomics. Human wants are numerous or unlimited and as stated earlier, resources are scarce. As such, it is difficult to satisfy the unlimited wants thus choices have to be made that would lead to efficient allocation of resources. For example, if a firm decides to produce household items, it foregoes the opportunity or alternative of producing industrial items or any other product. The benefits the firm could have gotten by dealing with industrial items (the next best alternative) are what Samuelson (2010) calls opportunity cost. Economics is all about making choices on what to produce, how to produce and for whom given technology and scarce resources (Wessels, 2006). Whatever choice is

Holmes and Watson Essay Example for Free

Holmes and Watson Essay Holmes requires Watson for companionship, for company, but more importantly as a sort of bodyguard, someone who will protect him. We have already seen, for example, how Holmes always lets Watson take the gun, for he himself does not want to be directly involved in any sort of violence. Holmes also bounces all of his theories and assumption of Watson, to see what his opinion is in the matter What do you make it Watson He would ask, just to see what Watson thought of the whole situation. Watson is someone who is not as clever or imaginative as Holmes, so he needs to follow Holmes lead, watching what Holmes does. Watson can be seen as the foil of the sword, Holmes being the tip of the sword. You can see that they both need each other to function efficiently, or neither work as well. Watson, although he doesnt always have an important role in the stories, still has a important role because he is the narrator of the story, which means he is the link which connects us to Holmes world and he is the one who shows us the character of Holmes. At the start of the Speckled Band, we see the intimacy of these two friends I woke one morning to find Sherlock Holmes standing, fully dressed, by the side of my bed. This scene shows how close the two friends are, and shows that their relationship as one which is very intimate, very close. When Holmes introduces Watson here, he shows us that he regards Watson here as an equal telling Mrs Hudson that This is my intimate friend and associate, Dr Watson before whom you can speak as freely as before myself. Whilst Holmes doesnt always regard Watson as an equal, perhaps this a time were he does. Watson is sort of a sound board that Holmes can relay his ideas off of, often asking for Watsons opinion. He does this perhaps so that he can see if Watson does or does not agree with him, or perhaps so that we can here what Holmes makes of it. Another reason why Watson is our link towards Sherlock Holmes, why Watson is so very Important. During the Speckled band Watson is beside Holmes to protect Holmes form danger, in particular Dr Grimsby Roylott. There relationship in all of the stories is pretty similar, with Watson simply observing Holmess actions, whilst adding in personal thoughts of his own. Holmes and Watson are a team however, they solve the cases together. Although Holmes will sometimes not always require Watsons protection, but also even some ideas What do you make of that Watson? Watson for example, during the adventure of The Silver Blaze figures out something which Holmes could not see The Horse was alone before discovers Watson as he notices a mans tracks alongside the horses. Whilst Watson can figure out certain things for himself, he like Sergeant Gregory lacks the imagination that Holmes has. This is often why Watson can not see beyond the picture, and therefore cannot discover things as quickly as Holmes. Holmes and Watson used to live as bachelors until Holmes got married in Which shows that their relationship may not of only have grown so intimate during their adventures, but also because the were living together. Also at the start of the Sliver Blaze and the Speckled band, we clearly see just from picturing the seen how close they are. In the speckled band Holmes is standing next to Watsons bed apologising from waking him. In the silver blaze, they are sitting down together having breakfast with each other. These scenes show that they have a very deep relationship. Watsons marriage also affects their relationship because it means that they no longer live with each other and therefore may have grown apart. The conclusion of my studies shows that Holmes and Watson are more than simply associate. They have an intimate and deep friendship, which is strengthened through their adventures together. Holmes and Watson work best during the investigations together, combining their different qualities and strengths to help them solve the case. Holmes in the relationship is the more dominant figure, intellectually smarter than Holmes and mainly contributing to the case itself using his powerful powers of observation and imagination. Watson however, is more down to Earth and his role is to assist Holmes by protection (carrying the gun, accompanying Holmes) and being the link between Holmes and us. He is also there perhaps to keep Holmes and check, for when he worries about Holmes smoking. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Conan Doyle section.

Definition Of A Product Life Cycle Marketing Essay

Definition Of A Product Life Cycle Marketing Essay A product is anything which is capable of satisfying customers needs. Product includes both physical or tangible products (mobile,car, type writer, computer, bike) and intangible products or services (health care, banking, insurance). Definition of a Product Life Cycle define what a product life cycle is: It is the period of time over which an item is developed, brought to market and eventually removed from the market. OR The stages through which a product develops over time is called Product Life Cycle (PLC). OR The product life cycle is MARKETING CONCEPT that describes the way the revenues from the sale of a product behave over time. Stages of a Product Life Cycle The product life cycle is broken down into four phases: Introduction Growth Maturity Decline The Product Life Cycle (PLC) Curve plc, product life cycle curve For all products, the life cycle is drawn is the form of a mount shaped curve. The starting of the curve marks the introduction stage; the slope indicates growth stage; top of the curve signifies maturity; and the graph ends in the decline stage. Theory of PLC: Biological Life Cycle Versus Product Life Cycle The concept of Product Life Cycle is based on biological life cycle. For instance, when a seed is planted (introduction); it begins to pullulate (growth); it shoot out flowers and leaves (maturity); and after a defined period of time, it starts to shrink and eventually die out (decline). Human beings also pass through the same phases of introduction, growth, maturity and decline in their lives. The same theory applies to a product. When a new product is launched in the market, it starts gaining customers; then it stabilizes and becomes mature; then after some time, it is taken over by the introduction of better and superior competitors therefore, it is withdrawn or harvested from the market. Benefits of Using a Product Life Cycle for Revenue MARKETING managers consider product life cycle as an important measure of sales revenues. As you can see it from the figure, the slope of the curve denotes the sales of a particular product. The more the slope then more the sales. When a product is introduced in the market, the sales are negligible. Due to marketing promotion efforts, the demand of product starts to rise and as a result some revenue is generated. When more and more customers begin to buy the product, the revenues of the product reaches to maximum; this stage is called maturity. A product can stay in maturity for several weeks, months or years depending on the external and internal market conditions and resources. Finally, when a product better in features and functions is launched by a competitor into the market, the sales starts to decline; in some cases, companies have to disengage their products or services. Product Life Cycle Management (Marketing)/ PLCM Product life cycle management (or PLCM) is the succession of strategies used by business management as a product goes through its developmental life cycle. The conditions involving the promotion and sales of a product, involving market saturation and advertising vary over time and must be managed as it moves through the different stages of succession. What is Marketing Mix? A marketing mix is a pre-planned assortment of all those controllable elements which are involved in the planning of a products marketing. they include the following 4Ps Product (often substituted by Presentation) Price Place Promotion These four elements are adjusted until the correct combination is reached befitting the requirements of a products customers, while generating optimum income. How to Create a Product Life Cycle First Stage Introducing the Product : Brand Building For the product life cycle to begin, the product must be launched in the market. This is done after target market is identified and ensured that the need for your product or service exists. At this stage, sales will be very low because customers are not really aware about the product and its benefits. Generating Demand: Promotion, Advertising, Marketing The cost of advertising and initial distribution is very high as companies intend to create awareness of the product and target early adopters. The goal is to build market and generate demand. Stage 1 Marketing Mix Implications You need to have a fair idea of marketing mix implications for each stage. Product Products are very less in number Price Some companies keep the price to high so as to cover their costs whereas others tend to keep it low so as to attract more and more early adopters. Distribution Initially, the distribution is done selectively Promotion Creation of awareness is the only goal of the promotion Growth Watch how the product is establishing market and making profit in comparison to the competitors. Maintain the focus on the promotion efforts. Notice how slowly or rapidly the product is gaining customers and generating profits. More and more retailers will be interested in carrying your product. Remember the goal of growth phase is to increase sales and gain customer preference. Second Stage Stage 2 Marketing Mix Implications Product Improvement of the product quality. Price If the demand of the product is high, price is maintained at high level whereas; if you want to target additional customer segments, reduce the price. Distribution To intensify distribution, discounts are offered to the retailers. Promotion Improved the promotional efforts. Maturity You will observe that your product has met market saturation. Eventually, there will be a marked increase in sales and it will become a challenge for the marketing and sales team to maintain the market share as new competitors would be penetrating into the market. Increase promotional efforts and offer more discount to the retailers in order that they give your more shelf space than competitors. The goal of maturity stage is to extend product life cycle while maintaining market share. Third Stage Stage 3 Marketing Mix Implications Product Product is differentiated from those of competitors Price Maximum possible reduction in prices to be made Distribution Retain existing distributors by offering discounts as well as searching for more channels of distribution Promotion Intensive promotion efforts in order to establish brand loyality Decline Carry out amarketing analysis or a survey to find out how customers perceive the product currently. If the interest and demand is low, think of ways to take the product back to profit making position. Possible ways could be the creation of new target segment and making modifications in the product. The goal of decline stage is either to maintain the product or discontinue it. Fourth Stage Stage 4 Marketing Mix Implications Product Fewer products left in the product line. Price If the product is to be maintained, the prices are retained. In case of termination, prices are reduced to liquidate inventory. Distribution Channels are phased out gradually. Promotion Advertising expenditure reaches a minimum level Examples of Product Life Cycle (PLC) Set out below are some suggested examples of products that are currently at different stages of the product life-cycle: INTRODUCTION GROWTH MATURITY DECLINE Third generation mobile phones Portable DVD Players Personal Computers Typewriters E-conferencing Email Faxes Handwritten letters All-in-one racing skin-suits Breathable synthetic fabrics Cotton t-shirts Shell Suits iris-based personal identity cards Smart cards Credit cards Cheque books Popular Cases of Product Life Cycles Pepsi Product Life Cycle Development Coca Cola Product Life Cycle Development Kellogs Product Life Cycle Development Apple Product Life Cycle Development Nokia Product Life Cycle Development

†REFLECTION Monitoring and Ensuring Quality Care

– REFLECTION Monitoring and Ensuring Quality Care Introduction The purpose of this paper is to reflect on a recent personal experience of patient care, which enabled me to achieve a module 9 competency, Actively seeks to extend own knowledge. I will be critically analyzing one nursing practice incident using Boud, et al (1985) model of reflection, (please see appendix 1) which will enable me to monitor and ensure quality patient care in future practice. The nursing incident happened when I was looking after a patient requiring enteral tube feeding (ETF). It is important to note that all confidential information relating to patients, wards, hospitals and professional colleagues has not been included in this paper to ensure ethical practice and adherence to the NMC code of professional conduct, section 5 which affirms that I must guard against breaches of confidentiality (NMC 2008). Reflection is a useful tool for the continuation of professional development among nurses (Somerville and Keeling 2004). The word reflection originates from the verb reflectere which means to bend or turn backwards (Hancock 1998). It is a tool, which unlike text books and videos, does not have a limited shelf-life, it is cost effective, is portable and can be used world wide. Patient Profile The aspect of nursing care I have chosen to reflect on is the care of a patient who required enteral tube feeding (ETF) due to dysphagia a condition in which the action of swallowing is difficult to perform (Unison Health Care 1998). This nursing intervention was essential for a patient in my care, who I shall call John. Please see appendix 2 for Johns past medical history. The Plan of Treatment for John John was admitted to my area of practice six days ago following his CVA. He is receiving ETF via an NG tube as an immediate intervention and is being assessed to see if he is a suitable candidate for a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube which are used as a more permanent form of enteral tube feeding (Holmes 2004). The nasogastric tube is about 22 inches [55.9cm] in length (Holmes 2004) and was inserted into his left nostril down through the pharynx, through the oesophagus and through the cardiac sphincter muscle and into the stomach (Marieb 2001). Food can be administered through the tube directly into the stomach and the swallowing process does not need to take place. The food is administered by a pump that controls the amount of feed given in mls per hour. This description could sound as though ETF is always safe and effective and has no complications. Elia (2001) affirms that ETF is typically safe and easy to administer. However John did experience a number of difficul ties that could have been rectified sooner than they were. On reflection of Johns care it is clear to see (with the benefit of hindsight) that if Johns care was managed differently and if complications were noticed and acted on promptly, his hospital experience could have been very different. 1.) Returning to the experience Problems John faced. John experienced two main complications as a result of ETF. The first was regurgitation of the feed into his throat and mouth and the second was diarrhoea. The rate of the feed had been increased over a period of days to its optimal rate, following the ETF guidelines provided by the NHS trust that I was working in. The infusion was commenced during the night while he was sleeping to allow John greater freedom during the day as he could be disconnected from the pump. The regurgitation happened during the first night that the pump was running at the optimal flow rate. Davis and Shere (1994) report that regurgitation is a common complication of ETF. As a consequence, John had to swallow what had come up into his mouth. The rationale for John to undergo enteral tube feeding was to prevent further weight loss and aspiration which can be caused by dysphagia (DeLegge 1995, Gibbon 2002 and Davies 1999). Aspiration has various meanings, however in this context it refers to the movement of for eign material i.e. fluids or food, into the trachea and further down into the lungs (Unison Health Care 1998). This can occur when the swallowing mechanism is ineffective or impaired. Infection of the lobe of the lung, in which the foreign material has lodged, occurs. This is called aspiration pneumonia (Unison Health Care 1998). Patients suffering from dysphagia are at risk of developing aspiration pneumonia (DeLegge 1995 and Gibbon 2002). ETF was commenced to overcome this risk but now the very intervention that was intended to eliminate the risk has caused an even greater risk of aspiration pneumonia. According to Marieb (2001) there are two stages of deglutition (swallowing). The buccal phase, which is a voluntary action, occurs in the mouth and is the first phase of deglutition. The tongue progressively elevates anteriorly to posteriorly, propelling the bolus through the oral cavity. When the bolus has moved to the base of the tongue, the soft palate is raised, preventing food from being regurgitated via the nasal passage (Davies 1999). The second is the involuntary pharyngeal-oesophageal phase which Davies (1999) describes as a complex sequence of muscular movements. After a CVA the ability to initiate the secondary phase of deglutition can be disrupted resulting in ineffective or complete failure of this phase of deglutition. This short explanation of pathophysiology demonstrates how important it is to know nursing rationales for nursing interventions. Patients suffering from dysphagia can sometimes overcome the problem by eating a pureed diet and drinking thickened fluids, but this depends on the severity of the dysphagia (Stringer 1999). John needs ETF because his dysphagia is too advanced to be overcome by a change in diet. Arrowsmith (1993) recommends that patients who are receiving ETF via a NG tube that are lying in bed, should have their head and shoulders elevated 30-40 degrees during feeding and up to one hour afterwards to minimise gastric pooling and reflux of the feed. This example demonstrates how a simple action can make a substantial impact on the quality of care that they experience. It has the twofold purpose of Impact of the quality of care that they experience. It has twofold purpose of promoting the effectiveness of the intervention and minimises harm to the patient by reducing the risk of aspiration pneumonia. Assessing for signs of aspiration in a patient suffering from dysphagia should always be taken seriously by nursing staff. Stringer (1999) reports that if dysphagia is serious enough it can prevent the victim from swallowing their own saliva. The average person swallows approximately 590 times each day 146 when eating, 394 when awake and not eating and 50 times during sleep (Davies 1999). With the average person swallowing literally hundreds of times each day, patients are at risk of aspirating (on their own saliva) regardless of ETF. Barer (1989) found that over one third of conscious acute stroke patients admitted to hospital had unsafe swallowing. Davies (1999) citing Ellul and Barer (1994) affirms that dysphagia in the first three days after stroke is associated with a five to tenfold increased risk of chest infection during the first week. This is due to varying degrees of aspiration. Aspiration is a potentially fatal complication of ETF. John also experienced three episodes of diarrhoea since starting ETF. John was only provided with a commode which was only dealing with the symptoms rather than treating the cause. No contact was made with the senior house officer or dietician. Furthermore there did not appear to be much concern among the nursing team and there was no discussion or sharing of knowledge between colleagues accept what came from myself. I told my mentor what I had been reading during my reflection time and pointed out some reasons that have been identified as causing diarrhoea for patients receiving ETF. The attitude of my mentor was apathetic, and commented, Hes bound to pick up a bug, give it time, it will pass. This shocked me as Somerville and Keeling (2004) reports that the nursing profession depends on a culture of mutual support, and this was not what I received from my mentor. I wanted to discuss the temperature of the feed, his current medication and the cleanliness in which the feed was prepared and administered. If the feed is too cold when it is administered it can cause diarrhoea (Arrowsmith 2003). Howell (2002) reports that diarrhoea can be the result of ETF but it can also be due to the side effects of medications. Antibiotics can cause the common side affect of diarrhoea (BMA 2001) but John was not receiving any. Diarrhoea in ETF can also be caused through the introduction of bacteria through poor hygiene standards in the preparation and administration of the feed; however the preparation and administration does not need to be performed aspptically. This is only indicated if the patient is immunocompromised (Arrowsmith 1993). My professional knowledge reminded me that I could not dismiss the diarrhoea as a coincidence. If there were nursing interventions that could be used and I didnt use them, I would be failing to provide quality care for my patient. Nurses are responsible not only for their actions but also for their omissions (NMC 2008). I wanted to refer to each others professional knowledge through discussion, and to the ETF guidelines to see if there was a simple cause to the problem that could be rectified before consultation with the doctor or dietician became necessary. I was able to rule out most factors that can cause diarrhoea. This led me to believe that the infusion rate could be too fast. These are the factors that I wanted to discuss with my mentor so I could contact the dietician to seek help from the multidisciplinary team. Gibbon (2002) asserts that stroke care requires the services of a multi-professional te am, working towards an agreed therapeutic plan hence my reason to collaborate with the dietician. 2.) Attending to feelings What did I feel was Positive? During reflection time I was very interested and pleased to find this research to suggest that there could be something that I could do to put an end to the discomfort, distress and potentially disastrous complications of a patient in my care. Many times as a student I have felt that I personally, am not making a great difference to my patients health and wellbeing as I am not working independently, but under my mentor who in general decides on a course of action for our patients. This time I have found the answer from my own research. All that remains is for me to bring this research to my mentors attention and then put the intervention into practice. The patient will benefit, and I will have a great sense of achievement as I will have, in a small way, improved the quality of someones life, accomplishing one of the reasons why I decided to take a career in nursing. Attending to feelings What did I feel was Negative? In response to the apathy that I encountered, I felt disappointed and powerless and undervalued. My original mentor was off on temporary short term sickness due to a small operation and therefore I was allocated another Junior Ward Sister to take her place for the short period of time in her absence. I felt disappointed because my contribution to the care of my patient was not welcomed and that this mentor was not as patient or interested in my learning and on-going development. I also thought it was unfair because I had evidence to base my suggestions on. It was not a vague idea I had conceived but it was grounded in research. I felt powerless because as a junior and inexperienced member of the team I felt I had little influence over the overwhelming hierarchy. Morris (2004) states that student nurses possess little power because they are viewed as inexperienced. I wanted to make my mentor realise that the patient could be suffering (from diarrhoea and regurgitation) because of our negligence and not from inevitable causes. Why was Cognitive Learning Being Achieved? In this situation I was learning a number of things, mainly relating to communication, team work, assertiveness, accountability and responsibility. I learned that my priority is with the care of my patient and not with my popularity among colleagues, just as the NMC (2008) signifies when it states when facing professional dilemmas, your first consideration in all activities must be in the interests and safety of patients. When I met with my original mentor on her return back to work we discussed this incident of practice and she praised my efforts in extending my knowledge to improve patients care. I therefore achieved the competency, actively seeks to extend own knowledge. Do Any Barriers to Learning Exist? The barriers that existed to my learning were the apathy of the nurses and the limits of my own assertiveness. It was very hard on this ward to feel proud of the care that was being given. The ward was poorly staffed, the ward manager was unanimously unpopular, the ward relied heavily on agency staff that was not familiar with the ward and my temporary mentor wanted to leave nursing because of all of the above (and more). As a new and enthusiastic team member I found my self fighting against the low morale and low motivation of the current staff. Job satisfaction can impact on the care that nurses provide. Brown (1995) believes that when nurses enjoy good job satisfaction they provide a higher standard of care to their patients. Rohrlach (1998) and Govier (1999) cited by Kitson (2003) discovered that nurses who were happy with the care they were giving were more likely to stay within the clinical area which would in turn provide some stability and security within the workplace. Accor ding to this research, the inability to give quality care (due to the problems mentioned) was resulting in low morale. The dilemma I faced was as follows. I had already approached my mentor once regarding Johns problems and detected that there was little interest in what I had to offer and in the nurses willingness to correct any problems. If I addressed the issue again, I risked worsening the relationship between my mentor and myself. Morris (2004) identifies that student nurses often feel nervous about speaking out because they feel the need to conform or do not wish to be viewed in a negative way. Student nurses risk upsetting the status quo by speaking out. If I left the issue my patient may be suffering discomfort unnecessarily, but as a student I will never be held accountable in a way that registered nurses midwives or health visitors are (NMC 2008). Would this justify me leaving the issues and conforming to the apathy and bad practice of my mentor? Morris (2004) disagrees. She says that although students are not legally accountable for their actions and omissions, they are morally responsible for ensuring that patients are receiving good standards of care. The student nurse must be responsible. Semple and Cable (2003) affirm that responsibility is concerned with answering for what you do. Registered nurses, midwifes and health visitors are accountable which, Semple and Cable (2003) defines as being answerable for the consequences of what you do. 3.) Re-evaluating the Experience Drawing Conclusions Drawing conclusions is the most vital part of the process of reflection. It will shape future practice and quality of care. Conclusions that are drawn from reflection must agree with the Nursing and Midwifery Council code of professional conduct. It is with the NMC that all matters of conduct, practice and attitude are dictated to nurses. The NMC (2008) motto, protecting the public through professional standards can only be achieved if all those on the NMC register are willing to submit to the conditions and regulations that it upholds. Indeed Somerville and Keeling (2004) affirm that in order for nurses to meet the demands of the NMC, they must focus on their knowledge skills and behaviour which can be achieved through reflection. On reflection of the described incident, it was difficult to know what to do. My mentor was not up to date with the knowledge of this area of practice. I cannot, and do not expect her to know everything, however Glover (1999) points out the nurses should be reliant on others for information. The NMC (2008) states that nurses should work cooperatively within teams and respect the skills, expertise and contributions of colleagues, treating them fairly and without discrimination. Therefore I expected my temporary mentor to take more interest in what I had to offer. Indeed Morris (2004) argues that qualified nurses are obliged to listen to other staff regardless of their qualification status. Announcing that practice should be in accordance with the NMC is too simplistic an answer to such a diverse problem. It is correct to say this but how will this be achieved? The ward is in need of good clinical leadership, first of all from the sister in charge. Nadeem (2002) states that the call for good leadership in the NHS has reintroduced the matron figure and also the new role of nurse consultants. Specialist nurses do have a role in ensuring safe practice and quality care but this should be in addition to effective local leadership i.e. leadership from the ward sister. Leadership is perceived as being good if there is good team working and if managers have good relationships with staff (Lipley 2003) which is one area that needs consideration in this scenario. Meeting the staffs needs improves satisfaction, productivity and efficiency (Nadeem 2002) which in this instance principally means the provision of resources, i.e. human resources. Nurses who are happy with the care they give are more likely to stay within their clinical area (Rohrlach 1998 and Govier 1999 cited by Kitson 2003). This would provide some stability and security in the workplace. Clinical governance has also come to play a prominent role in ensuring quality care. The government has defined clinical governance as a framework through which NHS organisations are accountable for continuously improving the quality of their services and safeguarding standards of care, by creating an environment in which excellence in clinical care will flourish (Department of Health 1998). It had been noted that unacceptable variations in clinical practice where becoming common in the NHS (Department of Health 2010). While some patients were receiving excellent health care, e.g. in stroke care, other patients in the country were receiving sub-optimal stroke care due to differences in facilities, funding, education and staff. Each clinical area can improve the quality of care by (1) using modern matrons and nu rse consultants as clinical leaders, (2) by having adequate staff to care effectively and to lift morale among existing staff and (3) by implementing clinical governance which will result in the flourishing of good practices across wards, departments and NHS trusts through the sharing of expertise, research and ideas. The wards problems could also be addressed through annual reviews or by encouraging staff to keep an up-to-date portfolio (Somerville and Keeling 2004). This will allow nurses to identify strengths and opportunities for development. Critically analysing using reflection on this incident has been valuable in maintaining the quality of care as set out in the NMC code of professional conduct. Gallacher (2004) says that she questions different peoples practices in order to provide her patients with first class quality care. Clinical practice will not improve if it remains unquestioned. Hindsight gives the practitioner the opportunity to discriminate between good and bad practices. Safe, legal and quality care can only be given if it is in keeping with the NMC code of professional conduct. Reference list Arrowsmith, H. (1993) Nursing Management of Patients Receiving a Nasogastric Feed. In: British Journal of Nursing. 2 (21) 1053-1058 Barer, D. (1989) The Natural History and Functional Consequences of Dysphagia after Hemispheric Stroke. In: Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 52, 236-241 BMA (2008) New Guide to Medicines and Drugs. London: British Medical Association. Brown, R. (1995) Education for Specialist and Advanced Practice. In: British Journal of Nursing. 4 (5) 266-268 Department of Health (1998) First Class Service: Quality in the New NHS. London: The Stationery Office. Davies, S. (1999) Dysphagia in Acute Strokes. In: Nursing Standard. 13 (30) 49-55 Davis, J. Shere, K. (1994) Applied Nutrition and Diet Therapy for Nurses. 2nd Ed. Philadelphia: PA,WB Saunders. DeLegge, M. (1995) Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrojejunostomy: A Dual Centre Safety and Efficacy Trial. In: Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 19 (3) 239-243 Gallacher, G. (2004) Gaining a Better Understanding of Reflection to Improve Practice. In: Nursing Times. 100 (23) 39 Gibbon, B. (2002) Rehabilitation Following Stroke. In: Nursing Standard. 16 (29) 47-52 Glover, D. (1999) Accountability. In: Nursing Times Clinical Monograph. 27, 1-11 Elia, M. (2001) Trends in Artificial Nutrition Support in the UK during 1996-2000. Maidenhead: BAPEN. Hancock, P. (1998) Reflective Practice using a Learning Journal. In: Nursing Standard. 13 (17) 36-39 Holmes, S. (2004) Enteral Feeding and Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy. In: Nursing Standard. 18 (20) 41-43 Howell, M. (2002) Do Nurses know enough about Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy? In: Nursing times. 98 (17) 40-42 Hutton C (2005) After a stroke: 300 tips for making life easier, London.UK Kitson, J. (2003) Education for High Dependency Nursing. In: Paediatric Nursing. 15 (1) 7-10 Lipley, N. (2003) Research Shows Benefits of Nurse Leadership Training. In: Nursing Management. 10 (2) 4-5 Marieb, E.N. (2001) Human Anatomy and Physiology. 5th Ed. United States of America: Benjamin Cummings. Morris, R. (2004) Speak out or Shut up? Accountability and the Student Nurse. In: Paediatric Nursing. 16 (6) 20-22 Nadeem, M. (2002) Evolution of Leadership in Nursing. In: Nursing Management. 9 (7) 20-5 Nursing and Midwifery Code of Professional Conduct. London: Nursing Council (2008) and Midwifery Council. Nursing and Midwifery An NMC Guide for Student of Nursing and Council (2008) Midwifery. London: Nursing and Midwifery Council. Semple, M. Cable, S. (2008) The new Code of Professional Conduct. In: Nursing Standard. 17 (23) 40-48 Somerville, D. Keeling, J. (2004) A Practical Approach to Promote Reflective Practice within Nursing. In: Nursing Times. 100 (12) 42-45 Stephanie K, Daniels, Maggie Lee Huckabee (2008) Dysphagia following stroke (clinical dysphagia) London. Stringer, S. (1999) Managing Dysphagia in Palliative Care. In: Professional Nurse. 14 (7) 489-492 Appendix 1 Three stages to the process of reflection. Boud, Keough and Walker (1985). a) Returning to experience Observations what happened? What was my reaction? Clarify personal perceptions b) Attending to feelings What did I feel at the time? What did I feel was positive? Why is cognitive learning being achieved? What did I feel was negative? Do any barriers to learning exist? Raise awareness and clarify feelings c) Re-evaluating the experience Draw conclusions and insights together with existing knowledge Identify gaps in knowledge Integrate existing and new knowledge

Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling: A Solution to Kierkegaard’s Despair O

In Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling, the concept of the Knight of Faith is an exalted one, a unique title awarded to those whose devotion to God goes far beyond what is even comprehensible or expected for the average man, who has an aesthetic or ethical life. We are told by Kierkegaard that this Knight of Faith, when in a situation where resignation appears to be the only solution to a problem, puts his faith in what appears to be the absurd, and believes that the solution that he desires lies in God. This fuels his faith, and makes him better than the aesthetic man, who simply abandons or ignores the problem, or the ethical man, the Knight of Infinite Resignation, who accepts the problem and resigns himself to a life of despair. The Knight of Faith exists as a shining beacon of devotion to the will of God, and, according to Kierkegaard, there exist only two known examples of the Knight of Faith: Abraham, and Mary. These exemplary figures in history put their faith in God, and believed that God would provide a solution to their problems. This unconditional faith in their creator is supposed to be inspirational, and in a sense, make the reader feel incredibly pitiful and resentful of their own wavering faith. In the following paragraphs, I aim to argue that a moment of absolute faithlessness can prove to be just as powerful as a moment of pure faith, and that Mary and Abraham serve as God-given examples of an absolute faith that is inaccessible to all but a few humans who serve very specific purposes in this world. Finally, I will propose a different mode of existence, one in which a man’s free will allows him to find joy in whatever God provides for him. In Fear and Trembling, Kierkegaard uses the example of Abraham as ... ...e individual is able to engage in a deeper and more meaningful relationship with their Creator. The Knight of Faith, when engaging in this relationship, does so in the same manner that a small child would with their parent, however, the devotee attempts to create a mature adult relationship with their parent, one that is loving, but questioning, and while the love that exists between the two may be unconditional, the demands made are not. While Kierkegaard’s analysis of the superiority of the Knight of Faith in relation to those who follow the aesthetic life or ethical life is correct, he fails to acknowledge that faith can be rooted in joy and love, and can be far more spiritual and fulfilling than faith alone. This is the angst-ridden and unfortunate symptom of an existential despair, and does not truly reflect the complicated relationship between man and God.

Euripides Medea Essay -- Papers Medea Euripides Essays Papers

Euripides' Medea I see Medea as a woman who took a chance and stood up for herself. The kind of behavior that Medea displays was very rare for these times: she doesn?t accept the dramatic change in her life; she does something about it. On the other hand, Medea becomes so obsessed she loses herself to revenge. Medea is only heroic to an extent. Medea?s thirst for revenge begins when she finds out about her husbands unfaithfulness. Medea?s husband Jason decides to marry the princess Glauce to establish a position of power in Corinth. Jason claims he did it so Medea and their two sons could have better lives. Jason fails to tell Medea of his plans. Medea, who has committed her life to Jason, is enraged when she finds out. Rather than accept Jason?s betrayal and her own humiliation, she vows revenge. Here is where Medea is heroic and clever. Medea says just the right words to plead her case to Creon. Medea set her plan for revenge in motion when King Creon comes to exile her from Corinth. Medea: This one day...

Organisational cultures Essay

Introduction: defining culture The concept of culture has become increasingly significant in education during the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. This enhanced interest may be understood as an example of dissatisfaction with the limitations of those leadership and man- agement models which stress the structural and technical aspects of schools and colleges. The focus on the intangible world of values and attitudes is a useful counter to these bureaucratic assumptions and helps to produce a more balanced portrait of educational institutions. Culture relates to the informal aspects of organisations rather then their official elements. They focus on the values, beliefs and norms of individuals in the organi- sation and how these individual perceptions coalesce into shared meanings. Culture is manifested by symbols and rituals rather than through the formal structure of the organization: Beliefs, values and ideology are at the heart of organisations. Individuals hold certain ideas and value-preferences which influence how they behave and how they view the behaviour of other members. These norms become shared traditions which are communicated within the group and are rein- forced by symbols and ritual. (Bush 2003, p.156). The developing importance of culture arises partly from a wish to understand, and operate more effectively within, this informal domain of the values and beliefs of teachers, support staff and other stakeholders. Morgan (1997) and O’Neill (1994) both stress the increasing significance of cultural factors in leadership and manage- ment. The latter charts the appearance of cultural ‘labels’ and suggests why they have become more prevalent: The increased use of such cultural descriptors in the literature of educational management is significant because it reflects a need for educational organiza- tions to be able to articulate deeply held and shared  values in more tangible ways and therefore respond more effectively to new, uncertain and potentially  threatening demands on their capabilities. Organizations, therefore, articulate values in order to provide form and meaning for the activities of organiza- tional members in the absence of visible and certain organizational structures and relationships. In this sense the analysis and influence of organizational culture become essential management tools in the pursuit of increased orga- nizational growth and effectiveness. (O’Neill, 1994, p.116) The shift towards self-management in many countries reinforces the notion of schools and colleges as unique entities with their own distinctive features or ‘cul- ture’. It is inevitable that self-management will lead to greater diversity and, in Eng- land, this is one of the Government’s explicit aims. Caldwell and Spinks (1992) argue that there is ‘a culture of self- management’. The essential components of this culture are the empowerment of leaders and their acceptance of responsibility. Societal culture Most of the literature on culture in education relates to organisational culture and that is also the main focus of this chapter. However, there is also an emerging liter- ature on the broader theme of national or societal culture. Dimmock and Walker (2002a, p.3) claim that ‘the field of educational administration †¦ has largely ignored the influence of societal culture’ but their work has contributed to an increasing awareness of this concept. Given the globalisation of education, issues of societal culture are increasingly sig- nificant. Walker and Dimmock (2002) refer to issues of context and stress the need to avoid ‘decontextualized paradigms’ (p.1) in researching and analysing educa- tional systems and institutions: The field of educational leadership and management has developed along eth- nocentric lines, being heavily dominated by Anglo-American paradigms and theories †¦ Frequently, either a narrow ethnicity pervades research and policy, or an implicit assumption is made that findings in one part of the world will necessarily apply in others. It is clear that a key factor missing from many debates on educational administration and leadership is context †¦ context is represented by societal culture and its mediating influence on theory, policy and practice. (Walker and Dimmock 2002, p.2) Walker and Dimmock are by no means alone in advocating attention to issues of context. Crossley and Broadfoot (1992, p.100) say that ‘policies and practice cannot be translated intact from one culture to another since the mediation of different cultural contexts can quite transform the latter’s salience’ while Bush et al. (1998, p.137) stress that ‘all theories and interpretations of practice must be ‘grounded’ in the specific context †¦ before they can be regarded as useful’. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION48 Dimmock and Walker (2002b, p.71) have given sustained attention to these issues and provide a helpful distinction between societal and organizational culture: Societal cultures differ mostly at the level of basic values, while organizational cultures differ mostly at the level of more superficial practices, as reflected in the recognition of particular symbols, heroes and rituals. This allows organiza- tional cultures to be deliberately managed and changed, whereas societal or national cultures are more enduring and change only gradually over longer time periods. School leaders influence, and in turn are influenced by, the orga- nizational culture. Societal culture, on the other hand, is a given, being out- side the sphere of influence of an individual school leader. (Our emphasis) Dimmock and Walker (2002b) identify seven ‘dimensions’ of societal culture,  each of which is expressed as a continuum: 1 Power-distributed/power concentrated: power is either distributed more equally among the various levels of a culture or is more concentrated. 2 Group-oriented/self-oriented: people in self-oriented cultures perceive themselves to be more independent and self-reliant. In group-oriented cultures, ties between people are tight, relationships are firmly structured and individual needs are sub- servient to the collective needs. 3 Consideration/aggression: in aggression cultures, achievement is stressed, competi- tion dominates and conflicts are resolved through the exercise of power and assertiveness. In contrast, consideration societies emphasise relationship, solidar- ity and resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation. 4 Proactivism/fatalism: this dimension reflects the proactive or ‘we can change things around here’ attitude in some cultures, and the willingness to accept things as they are in others – a fatalistic perspective. 5 Generative/replicative: some cultures appear more predisposed towards innovation, or the generation of new ideas and methods, whereas other cultures appear more inclined to replicate or to adopt ideas and approaches from elsewhere. 6 Limited relationship/holistic relationship: in limited relationship cultures, interac- tions and relationships tend to be determined by explicit rules which are applied to everyone. In holistic cultures, greater attention is given to relationship oblig- ations, for example kinship, patronage and friendship, than to impartially applied rules. 7 Male influence/female influence: in some societies, the male domination of deci- sion-making in political, economic and professional life is perpetuated. In others, women have come to play a significant role. (adapted from Dimmock and Walker 2002b, pp.74-6). This model can be applied to educational systems in different countries. Bush and Qiang (2000) show that most of these dimensions are relevant to Chinese education: 49ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES †¢ Power is concentrated in the hands of a limited number of leaders. ‘The principal has positional authority within an essentially bureaucratic system †¦ China might be regarded as the archetypal high power-distance (power-concentrated) society’ (p.60). †¢ Chinese culture is group oriented. ‘Collective benefits [are] seen as more important than individual needs’ (p.61). †¢ Chinese culture stresses consideration rather than aggression. ‘The Confucian scholars advocate modesty and encourage friendly co-operation, giving priority to people’s relationships. The purpose of education is to mould every individual into a harmonious member of society’ (p.62). †¢ Patriarchal leadership dominates in education, business, government and the Communist Party itself. There are no women principals in the 89 secondary schools in three counties of the Shaanxi province. Coleman et al. (1998, p.144) attribute such inequalities to the continuing dominance of patriarchy. Societal culture is one important aspect of the context within which school leaders must operate. Leaders and managers must also be aware of organisational culture which provides a more immediate framework for leadership action. Principals and others can help to shape culture but they are also influenced by it. Chapter 7, for example, refers to the need for educational leaders to be aware of the societal cul- ture underpinning schools and colleges so that appropriate equal opportunities policies and practices can be developed. Central features of organisational culture Organisational culture has the following major features (Bush 2003): 1 It focuses on the values and beliefs of members of organisations. These values underpin the behaviour and attitudes of individuals within schools and colleges but they may not always be explicit. These individual beliefs coalesce into shared values: ‘Shared values, shared beliefs, shared meaning, shared understanding, and shared sensemaking are all different ways of describing culture †¦ These pat- terns of understanding also provide a basis for making one’s own behaviour sen- sible and meaningful’ (Morgan, 1997, p.138). This does not necessarily mean that individual values are always in harmony with one another. Morgan (1997, p.137) suggests that ‘there may be different and competing value systems that create a mosaic of organizational realities rather than a uniform corporate culture’. Dissonance is more likely in large, multipur- pose organisations such as colleges and universities but Nias et al. (1989) note that they may also exist in primary education. Fullan and Hargreaves (1992, pp. 71-2) argue that some schools develop a ‘balkanized’ culture made up of separate and sometimes competing groups: LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION50 Teachers in balkanized cultures attach their loyalties and identities to particular groups of their colleagues. They are usually colleagues with whom they work most closely, spend most time, socialize most often in the staffroom. The existence of such groups in a school often reflects and reinforces very different group outlooks on learning, teaching styles, dis- cipline and curriculum. Staff working in sub-units, such as departments, may develop their own dis- tinctive ‘subculture’ and middle managers, or ‘middle level leaders’ as the NCSL prefers to call them, may wish to cultivate this as a way of developing and enhancing team effectiveness. However, as Fullan and Hargreaves (1992)  imply, such subcultures may not be consistent with the whole-school or college culture. 2 Organisational culture emphasises the development of shared norms and mean- ings. The assumption is that interaction between members of the organisation, or its subgroups, eventually leads to behavioural norms that gradually become cul- tural features of the school or college. Nias et al.’s (1989, pp.39-40) research shows how group norms were established in their case-study schools: As staff talked, worked and relaxed together, they began to negotiate shared meanings which enabled them to predict each others’ behaviour. Consequently each staff developed its own taken-for-granted norms. Because shared meanings and ways of behaving became so taken for granted, existing staff were largely unaware of them. But they were visi- ble to newcomers †¦ Researchers moving between schools were con- stantly reminded of the uniqueness of each school’s norms. These group norms sometimes allow the development of a monoculture in a school with meanings shared throughout the staff – ‘the way we do things around here’. We have already noted, however, that there may be several subcul- tures based on the professional and personal interests of different groups. These typically have internal coherence but experience difficulty in relationships with other groups whose behavioural norms are different. Wallace and Hall (1994, pp.28 and 127) identify senior management teams (SMTs) as one example of group culture with clear internal norms but often weak connections to other groups and individuals: SMTs in our research developed a ‘culture of teamwork’ †¦ A norm com- mon to the SMTs was that decisions must be reached by achieving a working consensus, entailing the acknowledgement of any dissenting views †¦ there was a clear distinction between interaction inside the team and contact with those outside †¦ [who] were excluded from the inner world of the team. 3 Culture is typically expressed through rituals and ceremonies which are  used to support and celebrate beliefs and norms. Schools, in particular, are rich in such symbols as assemblies, prize-givings and corporate worship. Hoyle (1986, pp.150  and 152) argues that ritual is at the heart of cultural models: ‘Symbols are a key component of the culture of all schools †¦ [they] have expressive tasks and sym- bols which are the only means whereby abstract values can be conveyed †¦ Sym- bols are central to the process of constructing meaning’. (Hoyle 1986, pp.150-2). School culture may be symbolized through three modes: (a) Conceptually or verbally, for example through use of language and the expres- sion of organisational aims. (b) Behaviourally, through rituals, ceremonies, rules, support mechanisms, and patterns of social interaction. (c) Visually or materially, through facilities, equipment, memorabilia, mottoes, crests and uniforms. (Beare et al. 1989, p.176). Schein (1997, p.248) argues that ‘rites and rituals [are] central to the deciphering as well as to the communicating of cultural assumptions’. 4 Organisational culture assumes the existence of heroes and heroines who embody the values and beliefs of the organisation. These honoured members typify the behaviours associated with the culture of the institution. Campbell-Evans (1993, p. 106) stresses that heroes or heroines are those whose achievements match the cul- ture: ‘Choice and recognition of heroes †¦ occurs within the cultural boundaries identified through the value filter †¦ The accomplishments of those individuals who come to be regarded as heroes are compatible with the cultural emphases.’ This feature is evident in South Africa, for example, where the huge interest in school sport means that sporting heroes are identified and celebrated. This was evident, for example, in a Durban school visited by one of the authors, where for- mer student Shaun Pollock, the South African fast bowler, had numerous pho- tographs on display and a room named after him. In celebrating the achievements of this cricketing ‘hero’, school managers are seeking to emphasise the centrality of sporting achievement to the ethos and culture of the school. Developing a culture of learning in South Africa As we noted earlier (p.000), societal or national culture underpins the organisa- tional culture of individual schools and colleges. Nowhere is this more apparent than in South African schools where the predominant culture reflects the wider social structure of the post-apartheid era. Decades of institutionalised racism and injustice have been replaced by an overt commitment to democracy in all aspects of life, including education. Ngcobo (2003) addresses issues of cultural diversity and, drawing on Irvine (1990), identifies nine dimensions of African culture: †¢ Spirituality: life is viewed as vitalistic rather than mechanistic. †¢ Harmony: humans and nature live interdependently and in harmony. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION52 †¢ Movement: rhythm, music and dance. †¢ Verve: high levels of stimulation. †¢ Affect: emotions and feelings. †¢ Communalism: social connectedness and an awareness of responsibilities to the  group transcending individual privileges. †¢ Expressive individualism: genuine personal expression. †¢ Oral tradition: oral/aural metaphors and colourful forms. †¢ Social time perspective: time as social rather than material space (adapted from Ngcobo 2003, p.224). Ngcobo (2003) notes that these cultural features are very different from European cultures. Such cultural differences became particularly significant as schools began to change their racial composition in response to the South African Schools Act (1996), which made it illegal to deny admission to students on the basis of race. For- merly white schools, with a predominantly ‘European’ culture, began to assimilate learners, and to a lesser extent educators, from different cultural backgrounds. Ngcobo (2003) gives two contrasting examples of how school leaders responded to these cultural changes. Vryburg high school avoided cultural diversity by dividing the premises into two sections (white and black). This had several deleterious con- sequences, including conflict leading to charges of assault being laid against 14 black learners and seven parents of white students. Greenland secondary school in Durban adopted a different approach, aiming at cultural diversity and encouraging learners and staff to express and celebrate their own cultures. This school has been very successful academically which the principal attributes to ‘the strong integrative culture it promotes’ (Ngcobo 2003, p.230). The years of struggle against apartheid inevitably affected schools, particularly those in the townships. One of the ‘weapons’ of the black majority was for young- sters to ‘strike’ and demonstrate against the policies of the white government. Sim- ilarly, teacher unions were an important aspect of the liberation movement and teachers would frequently be absent from school to engage in protest activity. It is perhaps inevitable that a culture of learning was difficult to establish in such a hos- tile climate. Badat (1995, p.143) claims that ‘the crisis in black education, including what has come to be referred to as the â€Å"breakdown† in the â€Å"culture of learning† †¦ continued unabated’. This issue surfaced in Bush and Anderson’s (2003) survey of school principals in the KwaZulu/Natal province. In response to a question about the aims of the school, principals stated that: †¢ the school is striving to instill in the minds of learners that ‘education is their future’ †¢ to show the importance of education within and outside the school †¢ to provide a conducive educational environment †¢ to develop a culture of learning. 53ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES The absence of a culture of learning in many South African schools illustrates the long-term and uncertain nature of cultural change. The long years of resistance to apartheid education have to be replaced by a commitment to teaching and learn- ing if South Africa is to thrive in an increasingly competitive world economy. How- ever, educational values have to compete with the still prevalent discourse of struggle and also have to reconcile the diverse value systems of the different sub- cultures in South Africa’s integrated schools. It seems likely that the development of a genuine culture of learning will be slow and dependent on the quality of lead- ership in individual schools. Leadership and culture We noted earlier (p.000) that societal culture is beyond the control of educational leaders but heads and principals are able to influence organisational culture. Arguably, they have the main responsibility for generating and sustaining culture and communicating core values and beliefs both within the organization and to external stakeholders (Bush 1998, p.43). Heads and principals have their own val- ues and beliefs arising from many years of successful professional practice. They are also expected to embody the culture of the school or college. Hoyle (1986, pp.155-6) stresses the symbolic dimension of leadership and the central role of heads in defining school culture: Few heads will avoid constructing an image of the school. They will differ in the degree to which this is a deliberate and charismatic task. Some heads †¦Ã‚  will self- consciously seek to construct a great mission for the school. Others will convey their idea of the school less dramatically and construct a meaning from the basic materials of symbol-making: words, actions, artefacts and settings. Schein (1997, p.211) argues that cultures spring primarily from the beliefs, values and assumptions of founders of organisations. Nias et al. (1989, p. 103) suggest that heads are ‘founders’ of their school’s culture. They refer to two of their English case study schools where new heads dismantled the existing culture in order to create a new one based on their own values. The culture was rebuilt through example: ‘All the heads of the project schools were aware of the power of example. Each head expected to influence staff through his/her example. Yet their actions may also have been symbolic of the values they tried to represent.’ Nias et al. (1989) also mention the significance of co-leaders, such as deputy heads and curriculum co-ordinators, in disseminating school culture. Deal (1985, pp.615-18) suggests several strategies for leaders who wish to gener- ate culture: †¢ Document the school’s history to be codified and passed on. †¢ Anoint and celebrate heroes and heroines. LEADING AND MANAGING PEOPLE IN EDUCATION54 †¢ Review the school’s rituals to convey cultural values and beliefs. †¢ Exploit and develop ceremony. †¢ Identify priests, priestesses and gossips, and incorporate them into mainstream  activity. This provides access to the informal communications network. One of the ways in which leaders can shape or change culture is through the appointment of other staff who have the same values and beliefs, leading to cultural consonance. In this view, the staff selection process provides an opportunity to set out the values of the school, or its leaders, in the hope  that those who hold similar values will be attracted to the post while others will be deterred from making or pur- suing an application. Over time, the culture of the school will shift in the direction sought by the principal. The literature on collegiality (e.g. Bush 2003) shows that leaders are more likely to cede power to others when they are confident that their own educational values will not be compromised by doing so. Foskett and Lumby (2003) point out that staff selection processes are themselves subject to cultural variables. They draw on Akinnusi (1991) to distinguish between ‘universalistic’ and ‘particularistic’ approaches to selection. The universalistic approach, as discussed in Chapter 9 of this volume, for example, attempts to match applicants to objective criteria and is thought to be ‘more successful in identifying the best match to the vacant post’ (Foskett and Lumby 2003, p.71). These authors contrast this model with the particularistic approach adopted, for example, in Africa and in China. Here, ‘selection is shaped by the personal affiliation of the players, for example kinship, religion, ethnic or political similarities’ (p.70). This approach is likely to be successful in ensuring that the appointees have similar val- ues to the leaders. Using cultural criteria to appoint new staff may help to modify culture but the established staff, and inertia, may still ensure that change is highly problematic. Reynolds (1996) refers to one school where the prevailing culture was ‘posing severe difficulties for any purported change attempts’ (p.153). He point to ‘multiple barri- ers to change’ including: †¢ staff wanted ‘top down’ change and not ‘ownership’ †¢ ‘we’ve always done it this way’ †¢ individual reluctance to challenge the prevailing culture †¢ staff blaming children’s home background for examination failure †¢ numerous personality clashes, personal agendas and fractured interpersonal rela-tionships (Reynolds 1996, pp.153-4). This example illustrates the difficulty of attempting to impose cultural change. As one former college principal stresses, ‘[it is] dangerous †¦ for  managers to move too fast on cultural change’ (Bridge 1994, p.197). Turner (1990, p.11) acknowledges the pressures on leaders to ‘mould’ culture but rejects the belief that ‘something as pow- erful as culture can be much affected by the puny efforts of top managers’. 55ORGANISATIONAL CULTURES Hargreaves (1999, p.59) makes a similar point, claiming that ‘most people’s beliefs, attitudes and values are far more resistant to change than leaders typically allow’. He identifies three circumstances when culture may be subject to rapid change: †¢ The school faces an obvious crisis, for example a highly critical inspection report or falling pupil numbers, leading to the prospect of staff redundancies or school closure. †¢ The leader is very charismatic, commanding instant trust, loyalty and fellowship. This may enable cultural change to be more radical and be achieved more quickly. †¢ The leader succeeds a very poor principal. Staff will be looking for change to instil a new sense of direction (adapted from Hargreaves 1999, pp.59-60). These points may also apply to sub-units and subcultures. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) concludes that, ‘if none of these special conditions applies, assume that cultural change will be rather slow’. Leaders also have responsibility for sustaining culture, and cultural maintenance is often regarded as a central feature of effective leadership. Sergiovanni (1984, p.9) claims that the cultural aspect is the most important dimension of leadership. Within his ‘leadership forces hierarchy’, the cultural element is more significant than the technical, human and educational aspects of leadership: The net effect of the cultural force of leadership is to bond together  students, teachers, and others as believers in the work of the school †¦ As persons become members of this strong and binding culture, they are provided with opportunities for enjoying a special sense of personal importance and significance. Limitations of organisational culture The concept of organisational culture provides several useful elements to the lead- ership and management of people in schools and colleges. The focus on the infor- mal dimension is a valuable counter to the rigid and official components of the formal models. By stressing the values and beliefs of participants, culture reinforces the human aspects of management rather than their structural elements. However, this approach has three significant weaknesses (Bush 2003): 1 The notion of ‘organisational culture’ may simply be the imposition of the leaders’ values on other members of the organisation. The search for a monoculture may mean subordinating the values and beliefs of some participants to those of leaders or the dominant group. ‘Shared’ cultures may be simply the values of leaders imposed on less powerful people. Morgan (1997) refers to ‘a process of ideological  control’ and warns of the risk of ‘manipulation’: Ideological manipulation and control is being advocated as an essential managerial strategy †¦ such manipulation may well be accompanied by resistance, resentment and mistrust †¦ where the culture controls rather than expresses human character, the metaphor may thus prove quite manipulative and totalitarian in its influence. (pp.150-1) Prosser (1999, p.4) refers to the ‘dark underworld’ of school culture and links it to the concept of micropolitics: ‘The micro-political perspective recognized that formal powers, rules, regulations, traditions and rituals  were capable of being subverted by individuals, groups or affiliations in schools’. Hargreaves (1999, p.60) uses the term ‘resistance group’ to refer to sub-units seeking to subvert lead- ers and their intended cultural change. However, this may simply be a legitimate attempt to enunciate the specific values of, for example, departmental culture. 2 The portrayal of culture may be unduly mechanistic, assuming that leaders can determine the culture of the organisation (Morgan 1997). While they have influ- ence over the evolution of culture by espousing desired values, they cannot ensure the emergence of a monoculture. As we have seen, secondary schools and colleges may have several subcultures operating in departments and other sec- tions. This is not necessarily dysfunctional because successful sub-units are vital components of thriving institutions, and successful middle-level leadership and management are increasingly regarded as essential to school and college effec- tiveness (Harris 2002; Briggs 2003). In an era of self-managing schools and colleges in many countries, lay influ- ences on policy are increasingly significant. Governing bodies often have the for- mal responsibility for major decisions and they share in the creation of institutional culture. This does not mean simple acquiescence to the values of the head or principal. Rather, there may be negotiation leading to the possibility of conflict and the adoption of policies inconsistent with the leader’s own values. 3 Hoyle (1986) argues that symbols may misrepresent the reality of the school or college. He suggests that schools may go through the appearance of change but the reality continues as before: A symbol can represent something which is ‘real’ in the sense that it †¦ acts as a surrogate for reality †¦ there will be a mutual recognition by the parties concerned that the substance has not been evoked but they are nevertheless content to sustain the fiction that it has if there has been some symbolization of the substance †¦ in reality the system carries on as formerly. (p.166) Schein (1997, p.249) also warns against placing too much reliance on ritual. When the only salient data we have are the rites and rituals that have survived over a period of time, we must, of course, use them as best we  can †¦ however †¦ it is difficult to decipher just what assumptions lead- ers have held that have led to the creation of particular rites and rituals. Conclusion: people and culture The belief that schools and colleges are unique entities is gaining ground as people increasingly recognise the importance of the specific contexts, internal and exter- nal, which provide the frameworks within which leaders and managers must oper- ate. Despite the pressures of globalisation, understanding and managing the school context is a vital dimension of leadership in the twenty-first century. Values and beliefs are not universal and a ‘one size fits all’ model does not work for nations any more than it does for schools. The recognition that school and college development needs to be preceded by attitudinal change is also salutary, and is consistent with the view that teachers must feel ‘ownership’ of change if it is to be implemented effectively. Externally imposed innovation often fails because it is out of tune with the values of the teach- ers who have to implement it. ‘Since organization ultimately resides in the heads of the people involved, effective organizational change always implies cultural change’ (Morgan 1997, p.150). The emphasis on values and symbols may also help to balance the focus on struc- ture and process in many of the other models. The informal world of norms and rit- ual behaviour may be just as significant as the formal elements of schools and colleges. ‘Even the most concrete and rational  aspects of organization – whether structures, hierarchies, rules, or organizational routines – embody social construc- tions and meanings that are crucial for understanding how organization functions day to day’ (Morgan 1997, p.146). Culture also provides a focus for organisational action. Effective leaders often seek to influence values so that they become closer to, if not identical with, their own beliefs. In this way, they hope to achieve widespread support for, or ‘ownership’ of, new policies. By working through this informal domain, rather than imposing change through positional authority or political processes, heads, principals and other leaders, including middle managers, are more likely to gain support for inno- vation. 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